Diabetes: a review of its pathophysiology, and advanced methods of mitigation

References

• Upamali S, Rathnayake S. Perspectives of older people with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes mellitus towards medication adherence: a qualitative study. PLOS One [Internet]. 2023; 18(8):e0289834. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padhi S, Nayak AK, Behera A. Type II diabetes mellitus: a review on recent drug based therapeutics. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;131:110708. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goyal R, Singhal M, Jialal I, et al. Type 2 diabetes (Nursing). StatPearls [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Oct 8]; Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568737/.
   Google Scholar
• Deepa M, Grace M, Binukumar B, et al. High burden of prediabetes and diabetes in three large cities in South asia: the center for cArdio-metabolic risk reduction in South Asia (CARRS) study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2015;110(2):172–182. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2015.09.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarwar N, Gao P, Kondapally Seshasai SR, et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215–2222. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng Y, Ley SH, Hu FB. Global aetiology and epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(2):88–98. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2017.151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugandh F, Chandio M, Raveena F, et al. Advances in the Management of Diabetes Mellitus: a Focus on Personalized Medicine. Cureus. 2023;15(8):e43697. doi: 10.7759/cureus.43697.
   Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2011;34 (Suppl 1): S62–9. doi: 10.2337/dc11-S062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iqbal A, Heller SR. The role of structured education in the management of hypoglycaemia. Diabetologia [Internet]. 2018;61(4):751–760. doi: 10.1007/s00125-017-4334-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 2013-2020 GLOBAL ACTION PLAN FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 2013 [cited 2023 Oct 22]; Available from: www.who.int.
   Google Scholar
• Katsarou A, Gudbjörnsdottir S, Rawshani A, et al. Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3:17016. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28358037/.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• (2) Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care [Internet]. 2015; [cited 2023 Oct 8]38 Suppl: S8–S16. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25537714/.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ilonen J, Hammais A, Laine A-P, et al. Patterns of β-cell autoantibody appearance and genetic associations during the first years of life. Diabetes. 2013;62(10):3636–3640. doi: 10.2337/db13-0300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krischer JP, Lynch KF, Schatz DA, et al. The 6 year incidence of diabetes-associated autoantibodies in genetically at-risk children: the TEDDY study. Diabetologia. 2015;58(5):980–987. doi: 10.1007/s00125-015-3514-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Insel RA, Dunne JL, Atkinson MA, et al. Staging presymptomatic type 1 diabetes: a scientific statement of JDRF, the endocrine society, and the American diabetes association. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(10):1964–1974. doi: 10.2337/dc15-1419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler AG, Rewers M, Simell O, et al. Seroconversion to multiple islet autoantibodies and risk of progression to diabetes in children. JAMA. 2013;309(23):2473–2479. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.6285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults with diagnosed diabetes–United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2002 - PubMed [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 8]. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15549021/.
   Google Scholar
• DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E, Groop L, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Dis Primers [Internet]. 2015 cited 2023 Oct 8];1. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27189025/.
   Google Scholar
• Gaede P, Vedel P, Larsen N, et al. Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(5):383–393. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa021778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Management of blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus - PubMed. [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 8]. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19145963/.
   Google Scholar
• Rother KI. Diabetes treatment–bridging the divide. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(15):1499–1501. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17429082/.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alberti KGMM, Zimmet P, Shaw J. Metabolic syndrome–a new world-wide definition. A consensus statement from the international diabetes federation. Diabet Med. 2006;23 (5):469–480. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2006.01858.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walley AJ, Blakemore AIF, Froguel P. Genetics of obesity and the prediction of risk for health. Hum Mol Genet. 2006;15 Spec No 2: r 124–R130. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddl215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetes Mellitus: Management and Therapies. | Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 20e | AccessMedicine | McGraw Hill Medical [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 8]. Available from: https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookId=2129&sectionId=192288412.
   Google Scholar
• Fujioka K. Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes and the role of incretin hormones and beta-cell dysfunction. JAAPA. 2007; Suppl:3–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Olokoba AB, Obateru OA, Olokoba LB. Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a review of current trends. Oman Med J. 2012;27(4):269–273. doi: 10.5001/omj.2012.68.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schäfer-Graf U, Laubner K, Hummel S, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), diagnostics, therapy and follow-up care. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2021;129(S 01):S9–S19. doi: 10.1055/a-1284-6011.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Type 2 Diabetes - PubMed [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 8]. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30020625/.
   Google Scholar
• McIntyre HD, Catalano P, Zhang C, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2019;5;5(1):47. doi: 10.1038/s41572-019-0098-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapugi M, Cunningham K. Corticosteroids. Orthop Nurs. 2019;38(5):336–339. doi: 10.1097/NOR.0000000000000595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martens TW, Parkin CG. How use of continuous glucose monitoring can address therapeutic inertia in primary care. Postgrad Med. 2022;134(6):576–588. doi: 10.1080/00325481.2022.2080419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care [Internet]. 2021; [cited 2023 Oct 844:S15–S33. Available from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33298413/.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijan S. Type 2 diabetes. Ann Intern Med [Internet]. 2020;172(10):705. [cited 2023 Oct 8]. Available fromhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32422103/. doi: 10.7326/L20-0012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summary of revisions for the 2010 Clinical Practice Recommendations. Diabetes Care [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2023 Oct 8]; 33(Suppl 1). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20042773/.
   Google Scholar
• Nathan DM, Lachin JM, et al. Glycemia reduction in type 2 Diabetes - Microvascular and cardiovascular outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2022;387:1075–1088.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deacon CF, Lebovitz HE. Comparative review of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and sulphonylureas. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2016;18(4):333–347. doi: 10.1111/dom.12610.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metiglinide Analogues. 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Lee M-K, Kim SG, Watkins E, et al. A novel non-PPARgamma insulin sensitizer: MLR-1023 clinicalproof-of-concept in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications. 2020;34(5):107555. doi: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2020.107555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho E-H. Oldies but goodies: thiazolidinedione as an insulin sensitizer with cardioprotection. Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(6):827–828. doi: 10.4093/dmj.2022.0372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruse T, Hansen JL, Dahl K, et al. Development of cagrilintide, a long-acting amylin analogue. J Med Chem. 2021;64(15):11183–11194. doi: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Upadhyay M, Hosur RV, Jha A, et al. Myricetin encapsulated chitosan nanoformulation for management of type 2 diabetes: preparation, optimization, characterization and in vivo activity. Biomater Adv. 2023;153:213542. doi: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213542.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahmad M, Khan S, Shah SMH, et al. Formulation and optimization of repaglinide nanoparticles using microfluidics for enhanced bioavailability and management of diabetes. Biomedicines. 2023;11(4):11. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines11041064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Dakroury WA, Zewail MB, Amin MM. Design, optimization, and in-vivo performance of glipizide-loaded O-carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles in insulin resistant/type 2 diabetic rat model. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2023;79:104040. doi: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.104040.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogrebe NJ, Ishahak M, Millman JR. Developments in stem cell-derived islet replacement therapy for treating type 1 diabetes. Cell Stem Cell. 2023;30(5):530–548. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.04.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zala A, Thomas R. Antigen-specific immunotherapy to restore antigen-specific tolerance in type 1 diabetes and graves’ disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2023;211(2):164–175. doi: 10.1093/cei/uxac115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee J, Yoon K-H. β cell replacement therapy for the cure of diabetes. J Diabetes Investig. 2022;13(11):1798–1802. doi: 10.1111/jdi.13884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740–756. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.03.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sims EK, Bundy BN, Stier K, et al. Teplizumab improves and stabilizes beta cell function in antibody-positive high-risk individuals. Sci Transl Med. 2021;13(583):eabc8980. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abc8980.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herold KC, Bundy BN, Long SA, et al. An anti-CD3 antibody, teplizumab, in relatives at risk for type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(7):603–613. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1902226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gribble FM, Reimann F. Metabolic messengers: glucagon-like peptide 1. Nat Metab. 2021;3(2):142–148. doi: 10.1038/s42255-020-00327-x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haller MJ, Schatz DA, Skyler JS, et al. Low-dose anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) preserves β-cell function and improves HbA1c in new-onset type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(9):1917–1925. doi: 10.2337/dc18-0494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigby MR, Harris KM, Pinckney A, et al. Alefacept provides sustained clinical and immunological effects in new-onset type 1 diabetes patients. J Clin Invest. 2015;125(8):3285–3296. doi: 10.1172/JCI81722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forlenza GP. Use of artificial intelligence to improve diabetes outcomes in patients using multiple daily injections therapy. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2019;21(S2):S24–S28. doi: 10.1089/dia.2019.0077.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• The Lancet Diabetes Endocrinology. Diabetes care and AI: a looming threat or a necessary advancement? Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2023;11:441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu Y, Min H, Li M, et al. Effect of artificial intelligence-based health education accurately linking system (AI-HEALS) for type 2 diabetes self-management: protocol for a mixed-methods study. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1):1325. doi: 10.1186/s12889-023-16066-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nomura A, Noguchi M, Kometani M, et al. Artificial intelligence in current diabetes management and prediction. Curr Diab Rep. 2021;21(12):61. doi: 10.1007/s11892-021-01423-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peeters F, Rommes S, Elen B, et al. Artificial intelligence software for diabetic eye screening: diagnostic performance and impact of stratification. J Clin Med. 2023;12(4):1408. doi: 10.3390/jcm12041408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellahham S. Artificial intelligence: the future for diabetes care. Am J Med. 2020;133(8):895–900. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.03.033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pesl P, Herrero P, Reddy M, et al. Case-based reasoning for insulin bolus advice. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2017;11(1):37–42. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26862136/.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dankwa-Mullan I, Rivo M, Sepulveda M, et al. Transforming diabetes care through artificial intelligence: the future is here. Popul Health Manag. 2019;22(3):229–242. doi: 10.1089/pop.2018.0129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tasin I, Nabil TU, Islam S, et al. Diabetes prediction using machine learning and explainable AI techniques. Healthc Technol Lett. 2023; 10(1-2):1–10. doi: 10.1049/htl2.12039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramesh J, Aburukba R, Sagahyroon A. A remote healthcare monitoring framework for diabetes prediction using machine learning. Healthc Technol Lett. 2021;8(3):45–57. doi: 10.1049/htl2.12010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dankwa-Mullan I, Rivo M, Sepulveda M, et al. Transforming diabetes care through artificial intelligence: the future is here. 2019;22:229–242. doi: 10.1089/pop.2018.0129.
   Google Scholar
• research2guidance - Top 3 therapy fields with the best market potential for digital health apps [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 9]. Available from: https://research2guidance.com/top-3-therapy-fields-with-the-best-market-potential-for-digital-health-apps/.
   Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Cheng S, Fan W, et al. Dual responsive block copolymer coated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles for glucose-mediated transcutaneous drug delivery. Chin J Chem Eng. 2022;51:35–42. doi: 10.1016/j.cjche.2021.07.019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasabov N, Havukkala I, A special issue on computational intelligence for bioinformatics. J Comput Theor Nanosci. 2005;2(4):471–472. doi: 10.1166/jctn.2005.2971.
   Google Scholar
• Chang V, Bailey J, Xu QA, et al. Pima indians diabetes mellitus classification based on machine learning (ML) algorithms. Neural Comput & Applic. 2023; 35(22):16157–16173. doi: 10.1007/s00521-022-07049-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larabi-Marie-Sainte S, Aburahmah L, Almohaini R, et al. Current techniques for diabetes prediction: review and case study. Appl Scis. 2019;9(21):4604. doi: 10.3390/app9214604.
   Google Scholar
• Xu X, Wang G, Zhou T, et al. Novel approaches to drug discovery for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2014;9(9):1047–1058. doi: 10.1517/17460441.2014.941352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang H, Xia C, Lin J, et al. Carbon nanomaterials: a growing tool for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetes mellitus. Environ Res. 2023;221:115250. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhai W, Srikanth N, Kong LB, et al. Carbon nanomaterials in tribology. Carbon. 2017;119:150–171. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2017.04.027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahiman S, Tantry BA. Nanomedicine current trends in diabetes management. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2012;3:137. doi: 10.4172/2157-7439.1000137.
   Google Scholar
• Shao T, Yuan P, Zhu L, et al. Carbon nanoparticles inhibit Α-glucosidase activity and induce a hypoglycemic effect in diabetic mice. Molecules. 2019;24(18):24. doi: 10.3390/molecules24183257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park M, Sharma A, Kang C, et al. N-doped carbon nanorods from biomass as a potential antidiabetic nanomedicine. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2022;8(5):2131–2141. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandramohan R, Saravanan S, Pari L. Beneficial effects of tyrosol on altered glycoprotein components in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Pharm Biol. 2017;55(1):1631–1637. doi: 10.1080/13880209.2017.1315603.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jafari-Rastegar N, Hosseininia H-S, Jalilvand E, et al. Oral administration of nano-tyrosol reversed the diabetes-induced liver damage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2022;22 (1):297–305. doi: 10.1007/s40200-022-01133-w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaa H, Abdelaziz M, Mustafa M, et al. Therapeutic effect of melatonin-loaded chitosan/lecithin nanoparticles on hyperglycemia and pancreatic beta cells regeneration in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):10617. [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Oct 22];13:1–15. Available from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-36929-0. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-36929-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correa R, Rodriguez BSQ, Nappe TM. Glipizide. xPharm: the comprehensive pharmacology reference [Internet]. 2023 cited 2023 Oct 22];1–4. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459177/.
   Google Scholar
• Tiwari P, Mishra BN, Sangwan NS. Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of gymnema sylvestre: an important medicinal plant. Biomed Res Int. 2014; [cited 2023 Oct 22]; 2014. 830285. doi: 10.1155/2014/830285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar Seetharaman P, Ramalingam P, Chandrika M, et al. Antidiabetic potential of gymnemic acid mediated gold nanoparticles (gym@AuNPs) on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats-An implication on in vivo approach. Int J Pharm. 2023;636:122843. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.122843.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Souto EB, Souto SB, Campos JR, et al. Nanoparticle delivery systems in the treatment of diabetes complications. Molecules. 2019;24(23):4209. doi: 10.3390/molecules24234209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar