Boon, bane, or business as usual: Perceptions of the economic consequences of peacekeeping withdrawal from Liberia

References

• Ali, S. 2009. Impact of the Financial Crisis on Africa. Washington D.C., Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2009/04/15/impact-of-financial-crisis-on-africa-pub-22995.
   Google Scholar
• Ammitzboell, K. 2007. “Unintended Consequences of Peace Operations on the Host Economy from a People’s Perspective.” In Unintended Consequences of Peacekeeping Operations, edited by C. Aoi, C. de Coning, and R. Thakur, 69–89. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Andersen, L. 2010. “Outsiders inside the State. Post-Conflict Liberia between Trusteeship and Partnership.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 4 (2): 129–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/17502970903533660
   Google Scholar
• Aning, K., and F. Edu-Afful. 2013. “Unintended Impacts and the Gendered Consequences of Peacekeeping Economies in Liberia.” International Peacekeeping 20 (1): 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2013.761828
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beber, B., M. J. Gilligan, J. Guardado, and S. Karim. 2019. “The Promise and Peril of Peacekeeping Economies.” International Studies Quarterly 63 (2): 364–379. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqz012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bove, V., and L. Elia. 2018. “Economic Development in Peacekeeping Host Countries.” CESifo Economic Studies 64 (4): 712–728. https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifx009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bove, V., J. Di Salvatore, and L. Elia. 2022. “UN Peacekeeping and Households’ Well-Being in Civil Wars.” American Journal of Political Science 66 (2): 402–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12644
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brklacich, M., M. Chazan, H.-G. Bohle. 2010. “Human Security, Vulnerability, and Global Environmental Change.” In Global Environmental Change and Human Security, edited by R. Matthew, J. Barnett, B. McDonald, and K. O'Brien, 35–51. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• BTI Project. 2018. Liberia: BTI 2018 Country Report. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung.
   Google Scholar
• Caplan, R. 2005. International Governance of War-Torn Territories: Rule and Reconstruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caplan, R., ed. 2012. Exit Strategies and State Building. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caplan, R., J. Gledhill, and M. Meiske. 2022. “Peacekeeping Operations: The Endgame.” In Handbook on Peacekeeping and International Relations, edited by H. Dorussen, 343–359. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Carnahan, M., S. Gilmore, and W. Durch. 2007. “New Data on the Economic Impact of UN Peacekeeping.” International Peacekeeping 14 (3): 384–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533310701422943
   Google Scholar
• Cinelli, C., A. Forney, and J. Pearl. 2022. “A Crash Course in Good and Bad Controls.” Sociological Methods & Research, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00491241221099552
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman, K. P. 2020. “Downsizing in UN Peacekeeping: The Impact on Civilian Peacekeepers and the Missions Employing Them.” International Peacekeeping 27 (5): 703–731. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2020.1793328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collier, P., A. Hoeffler, and M. Söderbom. 2008. “Post-Conflict Risks.” Journal of Peace Research 45 (4): 461–478. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308091356
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danielak, S. 2022. “The Infrastructure of Peace: Socio-Spatial Planning in UN Peace Operations.” [PhD diss.,], Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
   Google Scholar
• Day, A. 2019. UN Transitions: Improving Security Council Practice in Mission Settings. New York: United Nations University.
   Google Scholar
• Del Castillo, G. 2010. “The Bretton Woods Institutions, Reconstruction and Peacebuilding.” Ending Wars, Consolidating Peace: Economic Perspectives, Adelphi Series 50 (412–413): 75–100.
   Google Scholar
• Eakin, H., and A. L. Luers. 2006. “Assessing the Vulnerability of Social-Environmental Systems.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 31 (1): 365–394. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144352
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edu-Afful, F., and K. Aning. 2015. “Peacekeeping Economies in a Sub-Regional Context: The Paradigmatic Cases of Liberia, Sierra Leone and Côte D’Ivoire.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 9 (3): 391–407. https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2015.1070020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrall, J. 2012. “Recurring Dilemmas in a Recurring Conflict: Evaluating the UN Mission in Liberia (2003–2006).” Journal of International Peacekeeping 16 (3–4): 306–342. https://doi.org/10.1163/18754112-1604006
   Google Scholar
• Forti, D., and L. Connolly. 2018. The Mission is Gone, but the UN is Staying: Liberia’s Peacekeeping Transition. New York: International Peace Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Forti, D., and L. Connolly. 2019. Pivoting from Crisis to Development: Preparing for the Next Wave of UN Peace Operations Transitions. New York: International Peace Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Gallopín, G. C. 2006. “Linkages between Vulnerability, Resilience, and Adaptive Capacity.” Global Environmental Change 16 (3): 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gledhill, J. 2020. “The Pieces Kept after Peace is Kept: Assessing the (Post-Exit) Legacies of Peace Operations.” International Peacekeeping 27 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2019.1710367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gledhill, J., R. Caplan, and M. Meiske. 2021. “Developing Peace: The Evolution of Development Goals and Activities in United Nations Peacekeeping.” Oxford Development Studies 49 (3): 201–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2021.1924126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Global Peace Operations Review. n.d. UNMIL Budget and Uniformed Personnel, 2003-Present. Retrieved on 30 March 2021, from https://peaceoperationsreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/data_UNMIL-Budget-and-Personnel_1000x628_mar2017.png
   Google Scholar
• Gondwe, G. 2020. Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 on Africa’s Economic Development (UNCTAD/ALDC/MISC/2020/3).
   Google Scholar
• Hoeffler, A., S. Shahbano Ijaz, and S. von Billerbeck. 2010. Post-Conflict Recovery and Peacebuilding (World Development Report Background Paper). Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Hull, C., M. Eriksson, J. MacDermott, F. Rudén, and A. Waleij. 2009. Managing Unintended Consequences of Peace Support Operations. Stockholm: FOI Swedish Defence Research Agency, Defence Analysis.
   Google Scholar
• Institute for Economics & Peace. 2018. Positive Peace Report, 2018: Analysing the Factors That Sustain Peace. Sydney: Institute for Economics & Peace.
   Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. 2015. “Life in a ‘Peace-Kept’ City: Encounters with the Peacekeeping Economy.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 9 (3): 296–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2015.1054659
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. 2016. “Blue Helmet Havens: Peacekeeping as Bypassing in Liberia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.” International Peacekeeping 23 (2): 302–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1141055
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, K., and M. Bøås. 2015. “Transactions and Interactions: Everyday Life in the Peacekeeping Economy.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 9 (3): 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2015.1070022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung, Y. H., S. Y. Kim, S. I. Jang, E. C. Park, J. Shin, and J. Suh. 2022. “Association Between the Perceived Household Financial Decline due to COVID-19 and Smartphone Dependency among Korean Adolescents.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (6): 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Manyena, S. B. 2006. “The Concept of Resilience Revisited.” Disasters 30 (4): 433–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2006.00331.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, T., and K. Harris. 2012. Resilience: A Risk Management Approach. ODI Background Note. London: Overseas Development Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Mustafa, D. 1998. “Structural Causes of Vulnerability to Flood Hazard in Pakistan.” Economic Geography 74 (3): 289–305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulbah, S. 2018. State-Building Interventions in Post-Conflict Liberia: Building a State without Citizens. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Mvukiyehe, E., and C. Samii. 2021. “Peacekeeping and Development in Fragile States: Micro-Level Evidence from Liberia.” Journal of Peace Research 58 (3): 368–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343320912813
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naudé, W., A. Santos-Paulino, and M. McGillivray. 2009. “Measuring Vulnerability: An Overview and Introduction.” Oxford Development Studies 37 (3): 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810903085792
   Google Scholar
• Price, M., and L. Titulaer. 2013. Beyond Transitions: UNDP’s Role before, during and after UN Mission Withdrawal [CRU Report]. The Hague: Clingendael, Netherlands Institute of International Relations.
   Google Scholar
• Primson Management Services for the United Nations. 2018. Liberia Common Country Assessment 2018. Accessed November 2, 2021, from https://liberia.un.org/en/23618-common-country-assessment-2018
   Google Scholar
• Pugh, M. 2012. “The Political Economy of Exit.” In Exit Strategies and State Building, edited by R. Caplan, 276–292. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rouse, L. 2019. Liberia’s Peacekeeper Deficit: What Happens to an Economy When the Blue Helmets Go? The New Humanitarian (25 November).
   Google Scholar
• Scott, R., and OECD. 2020. “Mission Drawdowns -- Financing a Sustainable Peace: Sustaining Gains and Supporting Economic Stability Post UN Mission Withdrawal.” OECD Development Policy Papers, No. 28. Paris: OECD Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, F., and V. Fitzgerald. 2000. “Introduction.” In War and Underdevelopment Volume 1, edited by F. Stewart and V. Fitzgerald, 1–20. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, S. W. n.d. [2018]. Assessing the Economic Impact of the Draw-Down of UNMIL on the Liberian Economy. Agency for Economic Development & Empowerment [Liberia]. Retrieved on 2 November, 2021, from https://www.limpac.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Economic_Impact_of_Unmil_Final_Nov.pdf
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Peacekeeping. 2020. Quick Impact Projects for Communities. Retrieved on July 16, 2020, from https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/quick-impact-projects-communities.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2013. Policy on UN Transitions in the Context of Mission Drawdown or Withdrawal. Endorsed by the United Nations Secretary-General.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Security Council. 2003. UN Security Council Resolution 1509 (2003) (S/RES/1509).
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2011. World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2019. Building Financial Management Capacity in Fragile and Confliict-Affected States: The Case of Liberia. The Africa Region: The World Bank Group.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2020. Liberia Economic Update: The Covid-19 Crisis in Liberia. Report AUS0001591, June 2020. Retrieved on 2 November, 2021, from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/34271/Liberia-Economic-Update-The-COVID-19-Crisis-in-Liberia-Projected-Impact-and-Policy-Options-for-a-Robust-Recovery.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y
   Google Scholar
• World Bank; United Nations Mission in Liberia. 2013. Liberia Public Expenditure Review Note : Meeting the Challenges of the UNMIL Security Transition. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/13231
   Google Scholar
• Yoo, N., and S. H. Jang. 2023. “Perceived Household Financial Decline and Physical/Mental Health among Adolescents during the COVID-19 Crisis: Focusing on Gender Differences.” Preventive Medicine Reports 32 (2023): 102119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102119
   Google Scholar