A Shortcut to Autonomy or a Path to Dependency? Foreign Assistance and Brazil’s Search for Nuclear Autonomy

References

• Adler, Emanuel. 1988. State Institutions, Ideology, and Autonomous Technological Development: Computers and Nuclear Energy in Argentina and Brazil. Latin American Research Review 23 (2): 59–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandarra, Leonardo. 2021. From Bonn with Love: West German Interests in the 1975 Nuclear Agreement with Brazil. Cold War History 21 (3): 337–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastos, Maria I. 1995. State Autonomy and Capacity for S&T Policy Design and Implementation in Brazil. In Maria Inês Bastos and Charles Cooper, eds. Politics of Technology in Latin America: 68–108. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bini, Elisabetta. 2017. Atoms for Peace (and War): US Forms of Influence on Italy’s Civilian Nuclear Programs (1946-1964). In Elisabetta Bini and Igor Londero, eds. Nuclear Italy. An International History of Italian Nuclear Policies During the Cold War: 23–40. Trieste: EUT - Edizioni Università di Trieste.
   Google Scholar
• Braut-Hegghammer, Målfrid. 2006. Rebel Without a Cause? Explaining Iraq’s Response to Resolution 1441. Nonproliferation Review 13 (1): 17–34.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, Robert L., and Kaplow, Jeffrey M. 2014. Talking Peace, Making Weapons: IAEA Technical Cooperation and Nuclear Proliferation. Journal of Conflict Resolution 58 (3): 402–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camargo, Guilherme. 2006. O Fogo Dos Deuses: Uma História Da Energia Nuclear: Pandora 600 Ac-1970 [The Fire of the Gods: A History of Nuclear Power: Pandora 600 AC-1970] Rio de Janeiro: Contraponto.
   Google Scholar
• Campos, M. 1979. Depoimento à Comissão Parlamentar de Inquérito no Senado Federal [Testimony to the Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry in the Federal Senate]. Brazilian Senate, 7 June. https://www.senado.leg.br/publicacoes/anais/pdf/Anais_Republica/1979/1979Livro13.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Chang, Ha-Joon. 2002. Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective. London: Anthem Press.
   Google Scholar
• CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development). 1955. Discurso de Álvaro Alberto sobre a Criação do CNPq e a Exploração dos Minérios Radioativos no Brasil na Reunião do Conselho Nacional de Economia. Inclui Texto Contendo Informações sobre o CNPQ e Sua Atuação. Fundo Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq [Speech by Álvaro Alberto on the Creation of the CNPq and the Exploitation of Radioactive Minerals in Brazil at the Meeting of the National Council of Economics. Includes Text Containing Information about CNPQ and its Activities. National Council for Scientific and Technological Development Fund] CNPq.T.1.1.005.
   Google Scholar
• CNPq. 2002. História do CNPq [History of the CNPq]. 17 December. https://centrodememoria.cnpq.br/Missao2.html.
   Google Scholar
• Coe, Andrew J., and Vaynman, Jane. 2015. Collusion and the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime. The Journal of Politics 77 (4): 983–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colgan, Jeff D., and Miller, Nicholas L. 2019. Rival Hierarchies and the Origins of Nuclear Technology Sharing. International Studies Quarterly 63 (2): 310–21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Almeida, Alexandra Ozorio. 2015. O Programa Nuclear Brasileiro e o Acordo Com a Alemanha: Da Ambição Compartilhada aos Interesses Fragmentados (1975-1978) [The Brazilian Nuclear Programme and the Agreement with Germany: From Shared Ambition to Fragmented Interests]. PhD diss., Universidade de São Paulo.
   Google Scholar
• de Andrade, Ana Maria Ribeiro. 2012. Átomos Na Política Internacional [The Atom in the International Politics]. Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencia Tecnología y Sociedad 7 (21): 113–40.
   Google Scholar
• de Andrade, Ana Maria Ribeiro, and dos Santos, Tatiane Lopes. 2013. A Dinâmica Política da Criação da Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear, 1956-1960 [The Political Dynamics of the Creation of the National Nuclear Energy Commission, 1956-1960]. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas 8 (1): 113–28.
   Google Scholar
• de Andrade, Ana Maria Ribeiro, and dos Santos, Tatiane Lopes. 1990. Desafios do Desenvolvimento Tecnológico Nuclear Autônomo. [Challenges of Autonomous Nuclear Technological Development]. Londrina. https://anpuh.org.br/uploads/anais-simposios/pdf/2019-01/1548206572_c5f5e28217a0dc21760e990e38f71150.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• de Araujo Castro, Joao Augusto. 1972. The United Nations and the Freezing of the International Power Structure. International Organization 26 (1): 158–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Lima, Maria Regina Soares. 1986. The Political Economy of Brazilian Foreign Policy. PhD diss., Vanderbilt University.
   Google Scholar
• de Mendoza, Diego Hurtado. 2005. Autonomy, Even Regional Hegemony: Argentina and the “Hard Way” toward its First Research Reactor (1945–1958). Science in Context 18 (2): 285–308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Oliveira, Odete Maria. 1991. Os Descaminhos do Brasil Nuclear [The Missteps of Nuclear Brazil]. PhD diss, Federal University of Santa Catarina.
   Google Scholar
• de Souza, Fabiano Farias. 2021. O PRONUCLEAR Como Política de Formação de Recursos Humanos Para a Área Nuclear No Brasil (1977-1986) [PRONUCLEAR as a Human Resources Training Policy for the Nuclear Area in Brazil (1977-1986)]. PhD diss., Getulio Vargas’ Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Drogan, Mara. 2019. The Atoms for Peace Program and the Third World. Cahiers du Monde Russe 60 (2): 441–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Early, Bryan R. 2010. Acquiring Foreign Nuclear Assistance in the Middle East: Strategic Lessons from the United Arab Emirates. Nonproliferation Review 17 (2): 259–80.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, Paul N., and Hecht, Gabrielle. 2010. History and the Technopolitics of Identity: The Case of Apartheid South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies 36 (3): 619–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, Peter B. 1971. National Autonomy and Economic Development: Critical Perspectives on Multinational Corporations in Poor Countries. International Organization 25 (3): 675–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, Peter B. 1986. State, Capital, and the Transformation of Dependence: The Brazilian Computer Case. World Development 14 (7): 791–808.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, Peter B., and Tigre, Paulo Bastos. 1989. Going beyond Clones in Brazil and Korea: A Comparative Analysis of NIC Strategies in the Computer Industry. World Development 17 (11): 1751–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuhrmann, Matthew. 2009. Taking a Walk on the Supply Side: The Determinants of Civilian Nuclear Cooperation. Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (2): 181–208.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuhrmann, Matthew. 2012. Atomic Assistance: How ‘Atoms for Peace’ Programs Cause Nuclear Insecurity. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gaspari, Elio. 2014. A Ditadura Escancarada [The Not Hidden Brazil Dictatorship]. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Intrínseca.
   Google Scholar
• George, Alexander L., and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gibbons, Rebecca Davis. 2020. Supply to Deny: The Benefits of Nuclear Assistance for Nuclear Nonproliferation. Journal of Global Security Studies 5 (2): 282–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hecht, Gabrielle. 2011. Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in the Global Cold War. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Herzog, Stephen. 2020. The Nuclear Fuel Cycle and the Proliferation ‘Danger Zone’. Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament 3 (1): 60–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hymans, Jacques E.C. 2011. Veto Players, Nuclear Energy, and Nonproliferation: Domestic Institutional Barriers to a Japanese Bomb. International Security 36 (2): 154–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hymans Jacques E.C. 2012. Achieving Nuclear Ambitions: Scientists, Politicians, and Proliferation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jaguaribe, Helio. 1979. Autonomía Periférica y Hegemonía Céntrica [Peripheral Autonomy and Central Hegemony]. Estudios Internacionales 12 (46): 91–130.
   Google Scholar
• Kassenova, Togzhan. 2014. Brazil’s Nuclear Kaleidoscope: An Evolving Identity. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2014/03/12/brazil-s-nuclear-kaleidoscope-evolving-identity-pub-54832#:~:text=Remarkably%20little%20attention%20is%20paid,role%20in%20the%20global%20order.
   Google Scholar
• Krige, John. 2006. Atoms for Peace, Scientific Internationalism, and Scientific Intelligence. Osiris 21 (1): 161–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krige, John, and Sarkar, Jayita. 2018. US Technological Collaboration for Nonproliferation: Key Evidence from the Cold War. The Nonproliferation Review 25 (3–4): 249–62.
   Google Scholar
• Kroenig, Matthew Henry. 2007. The Enemy of my Enemy is my Customer: Why States Provide Sensitive Nuclear Assistance. PhD diss., University of California.
   Google Scholar
• Kroenig, Matthew. 2014. Force or Friendship? Explaining Great Power Nonproliferation Policy. Security Studies 23 (1): 1–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lainetti, Paulo E. 2015. Thorium and its Future Importance for Nuclear Energy Generation. Journal of Energy and Power Engineering 10 (10). DOI: http://doi.org/10.17265/1934-8975/2016.10.003.
   Google Scholar
• Mateos, Gisela, and Suárez-Díaz, Edna. 2016. Atoms for Peace in Latin America. Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Latin American History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.317.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, Nicholas L. 2018. Stopping the Bomb: The Sources and Effectiveness of US Nonproliferation Policy. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Finance of Brazil. 1962. Plano Trienal de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social 1963-1965 [Three Year Plan for Economic and Social Development 1963-1965]. Secretaria de Planejamento. 14 April. 1811/80.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Science and Technology of Brazil. 2010. Planejamento Estratégico 2010. [Strategical Planning 2010]. http://memoria.cnen.gov.br/doc/pdf/Relatorios/CDTN%20PlanejamentoEstrategico2010.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Montgomery, Alexander H. 2013. Stop Helping Me: When Nuclear Assistance Impedes Nuclear Programs. In Adam N. Stulberg and Matthew Fuhrmann, eds. The Nuclear Renaissance and International Security: 177–202. Redwood City (CA): Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moreira, Ildeu de Castro. 2014. A Ciência, a Ditadura e os Físicos [Science, the Dictatorship, and the Physics]. Ciência e Cultura 66 (4): 48–53.
   Google Scholar
• Müller, Harald, and Tokhi, Alexandros. 2019. The Contestation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime. In Mathew D. Stephen and Michael Zurn, eds. Contested World Orders. Rising Powers, Non-Governmental Organizations and the Politics of Authority Beyond the State: 202–42. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• NUCLEBRÁS (Empresas Nucleares Brasileiras S.A. [Brazilian Nuclear Enterprises]). 1979. O Grupo do Tório: Breve Histórico. [The Thorium Group: A Brief] DETR.PD. 011/79.
   Google Scholar
• NUCLEBRÁS. 1981. Term Loan. FGV-CDPOC. Paulo Nogueira Batista’ archive. PNB pna 1975.01.09.
   Google Scholar
• Patti, Carlo. 2021. Brazil in the Global Nuclear Order, 1945–2018. Baltimore (MD): John Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Perkovich, George. 2001. India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation. Oakland (CA): University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pinheiro, Roberto B. 1985. An Analysis of CDTN Performance in the Reactors Technology Area. Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear (CDTN). https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/21/068/21068170.pdf?r=1.
   Google Scholar
• Presidency of Brazil. 1977. Introdução ao Livro Branco sobre o “Programa Nuclear do Brasil” [Introduction to the White Paper on the “Brazilian Nuclear Program”]. 1 March. http://www.biblioteca.presidencia.gov.br/presidencia/ex-presidentes/ernestogeisel/discursos/1977/06.pdf/view.
   Google Scholar
• Pombo, João Bernardino S. M. 1976. Measurement of Material Buckling of Subcritical Assembly CAPITU. https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/14/742/14742811.pdf?r=1.
   Google Scholar
• Rosa, Luiz Pinguelli. 1979. Depoimento à Comissão Parlamentar de Inquérito no Senado Federal [Testimony to the Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry in the Federal Senate]. Brazilian Senate, 7 June. https://www.senado.leg.br/publicacoes/anais/pdf/Anais_Republica/1979/1979Livro13.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Santos, Juan C., Mello, Jair Carlos, Urban, Carlos Werth, and Brito, Sérgio Salvio. 1966. An Evaluation of Thorium Cycle Possibilities on Brazilian Nuclear Power Program. Revista da Escola de Engenharia Belo Horizonte. http://www.repositorio.cdtn.br:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/590.
   Google Scholar
• Silveira, Antonio. 1977. Memorandum from Brazilian Foreign Minister Silveira to President Geisel, US Threats and Promises and Brazilian Responses. Wilson Center Digital Archive. https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/memorandum-brazilian-foreign-minister-silveira-president-geisel-us-threats-and-promises.
   Google Scholar
• Smetana, Michal. 2020. Nuclear Deviance. New York (NY): Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Smetana, Michal, and O’Mahoney, J. 2022. NPT as an Antifragile System: How Contestation Improves the Nonproliferation Regime. Contemporary Security Policy 43 (1): 24–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solingen, Etel. 1994. The Political Economy of Nuclear Restraint. International Security 19 (2): 126–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solingen, Etel. 1996. Industrial Policy, Technology, and International Bargaining: Designing Nuclear Industries in Argentina and Brazil. Redwood City (CA): Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spektor, Matias. 2016. The Evolution of Brazil’s Nuclear Intentions. The Nonproliferation Review 23 (5–6): 635–52.
   Google Scholar
• Stevis, Dimitris, and Mumme, Steve P. 1991. Nuclear Power, Technological Autonomy, and the State in Mexico. Latin American Research Review 26 (3): 55–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swango, Dane. 2014. The United States and the Role of Nuclear Co-operation and Assistance in the Design of the Nonproliferation Treaty. The International History Review 36 (2): 210–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syllus, G., and Lepecki, W. 1996. Genese Do Programa Brasileiro de Centrais Nucleares [Genesis of the Brazilian Nuclear Power Plants Programme]. Rio de Janeiro: Associacao Brasileira de Energia Nuclear. https://inis.iaea.org/search/searchsinglerecord.aspx?recordsFor=SingleRecord&RN=31026934.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, Mark Zachary. 2016. The Politics of Innovation: Why Some Countries are Better than Others at Science and Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• UFMG (Federal University of Minas Gerais). 1971. O Grupo do Tório Face ao Panorama de Energia Nuclear no Brasil [The Thorium Group and the Nuclear Energy in Brazil]. Belo Horizonte.
   Google Scholar
• Ünak, Turan. 2000. What Is the Potential Use of Thorium in the Future Energy Production Technology? Progress in Nuclear Energy 37 (1–4): 137–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wyk, Anna-Mart. 2019. Apartheid’s Bomb and Regional Liberation: Cold War Perspectives. Journal of Cold War Studies 21 (1): 151–65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vigevani, Tullo, and Cepaluni, Gabriel. 2007. Lula’s Foreign Policy and the Quest for Autonomy through Diversification. Third World Quarterly 28 (7): 1309–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, Leonard. 2003. Atoms for Peace. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 59 (6): 34–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Interview #1 – questionnaire – a member of the Brazilian Navy (2022).
   Google Scholar
• Interview #2 – video conference – a Brazilian scientist from the military forces (2022).
   Google Scholar
• Interview #3 – questionnaire – a Brazilian scientist and former policy-maker (2022).
   Google Scholar
• Interview #4 – questionnaire and video conference – a Brazilian scientist and former member of the Thorium Group (2022).
   Google Scholar
• Internview #5 – questionnaire – a Brazilian scientist from the IPEN (2023).
   Google Scholar
• Interview #6 – video conference – a Brazilian scientists and member of the Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control (ABACC) (2022).
   Google Scholar