177
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Research

How essential is kratom availability and use during COVID-19? Use pattern analysis based on survey and social media data

, MS, PhDORCID Icon, , PhDORCID Icon, , BS, , BS, , MSW, PhDORCID Icon & , BS

References

  • Jansen KL, Prast CJ. Ethnopharmacology of kratom and the Mitragyna alkaloids. J Ethnopharmacol. 1988;23(1):115–119.
  • Singh D, Narayanan S, Muller CP, et al. Motives for using Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) among regular users in Malaysia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2019;233:34–40.
  • Suwanlert S. A study of kratom eaters in Thailand. Bull Narc. 1975;27(3):21–27.
  • Veltri C, Grundmann O. Current perspectives on the impact of Kratom use. SAR. 2019;10:23–31.
  • Grundmann O. Patterns of Kratom use and health impact in the US-results from an online survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;176:63–70.
  • Kruegel AC, Grundmann O. The medicinal chemistry and neuropharmacology of kratom: a preliminary discussion of a promising medicinal plant and analysis of its potential for abuse. Neuropharmacology. 2018;134:108–120.
  • Kruegel AC, Uprety R, Grinnell SG, et al. 7-hydroxymitragynine is an active metabolite of mitragynine and a key mediator of its analgesic effects. ACS Cent Sci. 2019;5(6):992–1001.
  • Singh D, Narayanan S, Vicknasingam B. Traditional and non-traditional uses of Mitragynine (Kratom): a survey of the literature. Brain Res Bull. 2016;126(1):41–46.
  • Todd DA, Kellogg JJ, Wallace ED, et al. Chemical composition and biological effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): in vitro studies with implications for efficacy and drug interactions. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):19158.
  • Covvey JR, Vogel SM, Peckham AM, Evoy KE. Prevalence and characteristics of self-reported kratom use in a representative US general population sample. Journal of Addictive Diseases. 2020;38(4):506–513.
  • Palamar JJ. Past-year kratom use in the U.S.: estimates from a nationally representative sample. Am J Prev Med. 2021;61(2):240–245.
  • Schimmel J, Amioka E, Rockhill K, et al. Prevalence and description of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use in the United States: a cross-sectional study. Addiction (Abingdon, England). 2021;116(1):176–181.
  • Bath R, Bucholz T, Buros AF, et al. Self-reported health diagnoses and demographic correlates with kratom use: results from an online survey. J Addict Med. 2020;14(3):244–252.
  • Boyer EW, Babu KM, Adkins JE, McCurdy CR, Halpern JH. Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth). Addiction. 2008;103(6):1048–1050.
  • Coe MA, Pillitteri JL, Sembower MA, Gerlach KK, Henningfield JE. Kratom as a substitute for opioids: results from an online survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;202:24–32.
  • Garcia-Romeu A, Cox DJ, Smith KE, Dunn KE, Griffiths RR. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): user demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;208:107849.
  • Smith KE, Lawson T. Prevalence and motivations for kratom use in a sample of substance users enrolled in a residential treatment program. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;180:340–348.
  • Obeng S, Wilkerson JL, León F, et al. Pharmacological comparison of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine: in vitro affinity and efficacy for μ-opioid receptor and opioid-like behavioral effects in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2021;376(3):410–427.
  • Basiliere S, Kerrigan S. CYP450-mediated metabolism of mitragynine and investigation of metabolites in human urine. J Anal Toxicol. 2020;44(4):301–313.
  • Behnood-Rod A, Chellian R, Wilson R, et al. Evaluation of the rewarding effects of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine in an intracranial self-stimulation procedure in male and female rats. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;215:108235.
  • Henningfield JE, Grundmann O, Babin JK, Fant RV, Wang DW, Cone EJ. Risk of death associated with kratom use compared to opioids. Prev Med. 2019;128:105851.
  • Henningfield JE, Fant RV, Wang DW. The abuse potential of kratom according the 8 factors of the controlled substances act: implications for regulation and research. Psychopharmacology. Feb 2018;235(2):573–589.
  • Vicknasingam B, Chooi WT, Rahim AA, et al. Kratom and pain tolerance: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. The Yale J Biol Med. 2020;93(2):229–238.
  • Ahmad K, Aziz Z. Mitragyna speciosa use in the northern states of Malaysia: a cross-sectional study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141(1):446–450.
  • Singh D, Muller CP, Vicknasingam BK. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;139:132–137.
  • Stanciu CN, Gnanasegaram SA, Ahmed S, Penders T. Kratom withdrawal: a systematic review with case series. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2019;51(1):12–18.
  • Weiss ST, Douglas HE. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and dependence with buprenorphine/naloxone: a case series and systematic literature review. Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2021;15(2):167–172.
  • Smith KE, Rogers JM, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. When an obscurity becomes a trend: social-media descriptions of tianeptine use and associated atypical drug use. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2021;47(4):455–466.
  • Griffin OH, Webb ME. The scheduling of kratom and selective use of data. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2018;50(2):114–120.
  • Sharma A, McCurdy CR. Assessing the therapeutic potential and toxicity of Mitragyna speciosa in opioid use disorder. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2021;17(3):255–257.
  • Singh D, Narayanan S, Vicknasingam B, Corazza O, Santacroce R, Roman-Urrestarazu A. Changing trends in the use of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) in Southeast Asia. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2017;32(3):e2582,1–6.
  • Smith KE, Rogers JM, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. When an obscurity becomes trend: social-media descriptions of tianeptine use and associated atypical drug use. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2021;47(4):455–466.
  • Swogger MT, Hart E, Erowid F, et al. Experiences of kratom users: a qualitative analysis. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2015;47(5):360–367.
  • Smith KE, Rogers JM, Schriefer D, Grundmann O. Perceived therapeutic benefits with caveats?: analyzing social media data to understand complexities of kratom use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;226:108879.
  • Brett EI, Stevens EM, Wagener TL, et al. A content analysis of JUUL discussions on social media: using Reddit to understand patterns and perceptions of JUUL use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;194:358–362.
  • Bunting AM, Frank D, Arshonsky J, Bragg MA, Friedman SR, Krawczyk N. Socially-supportive norms and mutual aid of people who use opioids: an analysis of Reddit during the initial COVID-19 pandemic. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;222:108672.
  • Chandrasekharan E, Samory M, Jhaver S, et al. The Internet’s hidden rules: an empirical study of Reddit norm violations at micro, meso, and macro scales. Proc Acm Hum-Comput Interact. 2018;2:1–25.
  • Sowles SJ, McLeary M, Optican A, et al. A content analysis of an online pro-eating disorder community on Reddit. Body Image. 2018;24:137–144.
  • Vosburg SK, Robbins RS, Antshel KM, Faraone SV, Green JL. Characterizing pathways of non-oral prescription stimulant non-medical use among adults recruited from Reddit. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:631792.
  • Wojcik S, Messing S, Smith A, Rainie L, Hitlin P. Bots in the Twittersphere. Pew Research Center Website. http://assets.pewresearch.org/wpcontent/uploads/sites/14/2018/04/06160833/PI_2018. 2018
  • MAXQDA 2020 [computer software]. Software V. Berlin, Germany: VERBI Software, Germany; 2020.
  • Brennan RL, Prediger DJ. Coefficient kappa: some uses, misuses, and alternatives. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1981;41(3):687–699.
  • McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Med. 2012;22(3):276–282.
  • Cohen J. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educ Psychol Measure. 1960;20(1):37–46.
  • von Eye A, Von Eye M. Can one use Cohen’s kappa to examine disagreement. ? Methodology. 2005;1(4):129–142.
  • Trakulsrichai S, Sathirakul K, Auparakkitanon S, et al. Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine in man. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2015;9:2421–2429.
  • Prozialeck WC. Update on the pharmacology and legal status of kratom. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2016;116(12):802–809.
  • Chittrakarn S, Penjamras P, Keawpradub N. Quantitative analysis of mitragynine, codeine, caffeine, chlorpheniramine and phenylephrine in a kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) cocktail using high-performance liquid chromatography. Forensic Sci Int. 2012;217(1–3):81–86.
  • Fowble KL, Musah RA. A validated method for the quantification of mitragynine in sixteen commercially available kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) products. Forensic Sci Int. 2019;299:195–202.
  • Scott TM, Yeakel JK, Logan BK. Identification of mitragynine and O-desmethyltramadol in Kratom and legal high products sold online. Drug Test Anal. 2014;6(9):959–963.
  • Singh D, Yeou Chear NJ, Narayanan S, et al. Patterns and reasons for kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use among current and former opioid poly-drug users. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;249:112462.
  • Wilson LL, Chakraborty S, Eans SO, et al. Kratom alkaloids, natural and semi-synthetic, show less physical dependence and ameliorate opioid withdrawal. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2021;41(5):1131–1143.
  • Smith KE, Rogers JM, Shriefer D, Grundmann O. Therapeutic benefit with caveats?: analyzing social media data to understand the complexities of kratom use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;226:108879.
  • Brown J, West R, Beard E, Michie S, Shahab L, McNeill A. Prevalence and characteristics of e-cigarette users in Great Britain: findings from a general population survey of smokers. Addict Behav. 2014;39(6):1120–1125.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.