Need for clarity and context in case reports on kratom use, assessment, and intervention

References

• Broyan VR, Brar JK, Allgaier Student T, Allgaier JT. Long-term buprenorphine treatment for kratom use disorder: a case series. Subst Abus. 2022;43(1):1221–766.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prozialeck WC, Avery BA, Boyer EW, et al. Kratom policy: the challenge of balancing therapeutic potential with public safety. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;70:70–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giroir BP. Letter from the Assistant Secretary of Health to the Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration to rescind previous support to permanently place mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act 2018. static1.squarespace.com/static/54d50ceee4b05797b34869cf/t/60145eab6df59e7e36a7cfc1/1611947693695/dhillon-8.16.2018-response-letter-from-ash-radm-giroir.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Garcia-Romeu A, Cox DJ, Smith KE, Dunn KE, Griffiths RR. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): User demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;208:107849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith KE, Dunn KE, Rogers JM, Garcia-Romeu A, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. Assessment of kratom use disorder and withdrawal among an online convenience sample of US adults. J Addict Med 2022. DOI:10.1097/adm.0000000000000986
   Google Scholar
• Groff D, Stuckey H, Philpott C, et al. Kratom use disorder: a primer for primary care physicians. J Addict Dis. 2021;40(1):1–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schimmel J, Amioka E, Rockhill K, et al. Prevalence and description of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use in the United States: a cross-sectional study. Addiction. 2021;116(1):176–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundmann O, Babin JK, Henningfield JE, et al. Kratom use in the United States: a diverse and complex profile. Addiction. 2021;116(1):202–203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schimmel J, Amioka E, Rockhill K, et al. Kratom use in the United States: response to Grundmann et al. Addiction. 2021;116(1):203–204.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith KE, Rogers JM, Dunn KE, et al. Searching for a signal: self-reported kratom dose-effect relationships among a sample of US adults with regular kratom use histories. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:445.
   Google Scholar
• Singh D, Muller CP, Vicknasingam BK, Mansor SM. Social functioning of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) users in Malaysia. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2015;47(2):125–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh D, Narayanan S, Muller CP, et al. Severity of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) psychological withdrawal symptoms. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2018;50(5):445–450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McWhirter L, Morris S. A case report of inpatient detoxification after kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence. Eur Addict Res. 2010;16(4):229–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanciu CN, Gnanasegaram SA, Ahmed S, Penders T. Kratom withdrawal: a systematic review with case series. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2019;51(1):12–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss ST, Douglas HE. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and dependence with buprenorphine/naloxone: a case series and systematic literature review. J Addict Med. 2021;15(2):167–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien GC, Odonkor C, Amorapanth P. Is kratom the new ‘legal high’ on the block?: the case of an emerging opioid receptor agonist with substance abuse potential. Pain Physician 2017;20(1):e195–198.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsumoto K, Horie S, Ishikawa H, et al. Antinociceptive effect of 7-hydroxymitragynine in mice: discovery of an orally active opioid analgesic from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa. Life Sci. 2004;74(17):2143–2155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma V, McNeill JH. To scale or not to scale: the principles of dose extrapolation. Br J Pharmacol. 2009;157(6):907–921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruegel AC, Grundmann O. The medicinal chemistry and neuropharmacology of kratom: a preliminary discussion of a promising medicinal plant and analysis of its potential for abuse. Neuropharmacology 2018;134(Pt A):108–120.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grundmann O. Patterns of kratom use and health impact in the US-results from an online survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;176:63–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyer EW, Babu KM, Adkins JE, McCurdy CR, Halpern JH. Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa Korth). Addiction. 2008;103(6):1048–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coe MA, Pillitteri JL, Sembower MA, Gerlach KK, Henningfield JE. Kratom as a substitute for opioids: results from an online survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;202:24–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillip AL. Heroin abstinence: a case report of kratom in the emergency department and beyond. Western J Emerg Med. 2019;20(2):1–3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith KE, Dunn KE, Grundmann O, et al. Social, psychological, and substance use characteristics of U.S. adults who use kratom: initial findings from an online, crowdsourced study. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2021:1–14. DOI:10.1037/pha0000518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh D, Yeou Chear NJ, Narayanan S, et al. Patterns and reasons for kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use among current and former opioid poly-drug users. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;249:112462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith KE, Lawson T. Prevalence and motivations for kratom use in a sample of substance users enrolled in a residential treatment program. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;180:340–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agapoff JR, Kilaru U. Outpatient buprenorphine induction and maintenance treatment for kratom dependence: a case study. J Subst Use. 2019;24(6):575–577.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowe A, Kerr PL. A complex case of kratom dependence, depression, and chronic pain in opioid use disorder: effects of buprenorphine in clinical management. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2020;52(5):447–452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buresh M. Treatment of kratom dependence with buprenorphine-naloxone maintenance. J Addict Med. 2018;12(6):481–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diep J, Chin DT, Gupta S, Syed F, Xiong M, Cheng J. Kratom, an emerging drug of abuse: a case report of overdose and management of withdrawal. A A Pract. 2018;10(8):192–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khazaeli A, Jerry JM, Vazirian M. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and addiction with buprenorphine. J Addict Med. 2018;12(6):493–495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei J, Butz A, Valentino N. Management of kratom dependence with buprenorphine/naloxone in a veteran population. Subst Abus. 2021;42(4):497–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmuhl KK, Gardner SM, Cottrill CB, Bonny AE. Home induction and outpatient treatment of kratom use disorder with buprenorphine-naloxone: a case report in a young adult. Subst Abus. 2020;41(3):311–314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smid MC, Charles JE, Gordon AJ, Wright TE. Use of kratom, an opioid-like traditional herb, in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;132(4):926–928.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sablaban IM, Gautam M. The diagnosis of severe obsessions in the setting of kratom withdrawal and treatment with lorazepam: case report. J Addict Dis. 2021;39(1):138–139.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Raju KS, et al. Preclinical pharmacokinetic study of speciociliatine, a kratom alkaloid, in rats using an UPLC-MS/MS method. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2021;194:113778
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chear NJ, Leon F, Sharma A, et al. Exploring the chemistry of alkaloids from Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) and the role of oxindoles on human opioid receptors. J Nat Prod. 2021;84(4):1034–1043.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kamble SH, Sharma A, King TI, León F, McCurdy CR, Avery BA. Metabolite profiling and identification of enzymes responsible for the metabolism of mitragynine, the major alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom). Xenobiotica. 2019;49(11):1279–1288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obeng S, Wilkerson JL, León F, et al. Pharmacological comparison of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine: in vitro affinity and efficacy for μ-opioid receptor and opioid-like behavioral effects in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2021;376(3):410–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma A, Kamble SH, Leon F, et al. Simultaneous quantification of ten key kratom alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa leaf extracts and commercial products by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal. 2019;11(8):1162–1171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swogger MT, Smith KE, Garcia-Romeu A, et al. Understanding kratom use: a guide for healthcare providers. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:801855.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar