0
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Crossroads of Corticotropin Releasing Hormone, Corticosteroids and Monoamines

Pages 531-556 | Published online: 27 Oct 2010

References

  • Adell , A. and Artigas , F. 1999 . "Regulation of the release of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the median raphe nucleus of the rat by catecholaminergic afferents" . Eur. J. Neurosci. , 11 : 2305 – 2311 .
  • Agid , O. , Shapira , B. , Zislin , J. , Ritsner , M. , Hanin , B. , Murad , H. , Troudart , T. , Bloch , M. , Heresco-Levy , J. and Lerer , B. 1999 . "Environment and vulnerability to major psychiatric illness: a case control study of early parental loss in major depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia" . Mol. Psychiatry , 4 : 163 – 172 .
  • Andrews , M.W. and Rosenblum , L.A. 1994 . "The development of affiliative and agonistic social patterns in differentially reared monkeys" . Child Dev. , 65 : 1398 – 1404 .
  • Anisman , H. , Ritch , M. and Sklar , L.S. 1981 . "Noradrenergic and dopaminergic interactions in escape behavior: analysis of uncontrollable stress effects" . Psychopharmacology , 74 : 263 – 268 .
  • Arana , G.W. , Santos , A.B. , Laraia , M.T. , McLeod-Bryant , S. , Beale , M.D. , Rames , L.J. , Roberts , J.M. , Dias , J.K. and Molloy , M. 1995 . "Dexamethasone for the treatment of depression: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 152 : 265 – 267 .
  • Arborelius , L. , Owens , M.J. , Plotsky , P.M. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1999 . "The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in depression and anxiety disorders" . J. Endocrinol. , 160 : 1 – 12 .
  • Arborelius , L. , Skelton , K.H. , Thrivikraman , K.V. , Plotsky , P.M. , Schulz , D.W. and Owens , M.J. 2000 . "Chronic administration of the selective corticotropin-releasing factor 1 receptor antagonist CP-154,526: behavioral, endocrine and neurochemical effects in the rat" . J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. , 294 : 588 – 597 .
  • Axelson , D.A. , Doraiswamy , P.M. , McDonald , W.M. , Boyko , O.B. , Tupler , L.A. , Patterson , L.J. , Nemeroff , C.B. , Ellinwood , E.H. and Krishnan , R.R. 1993 . "Hypercortisolemia and hippocampal changes in depression" . Psychiatry Res. , 47 : 163 – 173 .
  • Bachmann , C.G. , Linthorst , A.C.E. and Reul , J.M.H.M. 1999 . "Effect of chronic administration of the selective glucocorticoid receptor antagonists ORG 34850, ORG 34116, and ORG 34517 on the rat hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis" . Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. , 9 : P1102
  • Baker , D.G. , West , S.A. , Nicholson , W.E. , Ekhator , N.N. , Kasckow , J.W. , Hill , K.K. , Bruce , A.B. , Orth , D.N. and Geracioti , T.D. 1999 . "Serial CSF corticotropin-releasing hormone levels and adrenocortical activity in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 156 : 585 – 588 .
  • Banki , C.M. , Karmacsi , L. , Bissette , G. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1992 . "CSF corticotropin-releasing hormone and somatostatin in major depression: response to antidepressant and relapse" . Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. , 2 : 107 – 113 .
  • Barrett-Connor , E. , von Mühlen , D. , Laughlin , G.A. and Kripke , A. 1999 . "Endogenous levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, but not other sex hormones, are associated with depressed mood in older women: the Rancho Bernado study" . J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. , 47 : 685 – 691 .
  • Basso , A.M. , Spina , M. , Rivier , J. , Vale , W. and Koob , G.F. 1999 . "Corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist attenuates the anxiogenic-like effect in the defensive burying paradigm but not in the elevated plus-maze following chronic cocaine in rats" . Psychopharmacology , 145 : 21 – 30 .
  • Benus , R.F. , Bohus , B. , Koolhaas , J.M. and Oortmerssen , G.A.V. 1991 . "Heritable variation in aggression as a reflection of individual coping strategies" . Experientia , 47 : 1008 – 1019 .
  • Beverley , E. and Murphy , P. 1997 . "Antiglucocorticoid therapies in major depression: a review" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 22 : S125 – S132 .
  • Bifulco , A.T. , Brown , G.W. and Harris , T.O. 1987 . "Childhood loss of parent, lack of adequate parental care and adult depression: a replication" . J. Affect. Disord. , 12 : 115 – 128 .
  • Bifulco , A. , Brown , G.W. and Adler , Z. 1991 . "Early sexual abuse and clinical depression in adult life" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 159 : 115 – 122 .
  • Bloch , M. , Schmidt , P.J. , Danaceau , M.A. , Adams , L.F. and Rubinow , D.R. 1999 . "Dehydroepiandrosterone treatment of midlife dysthymia" . Biol. Psychiatry , 45 : 1533 – 1541 .
  • Board , F. , Persky , H. and Hamburg , D.A. 1956 . "Psychological stress and endocrine functions" . Psychosom. Med. , 18 : 324 – 333 .
  • Bodani , M. , Sheehan , B. and Philpot , M. 1999 . "The use of dexamethasone in elderly patients with antidepressant-resistant depressive illness" . J. Psychopharm. , 13 : 196 – 197 .
  • Boksa , P. , Krishnamurthy , A. and Sharma , S. 1996 . "Hippocampal and hypothalamic type I corticosteroid receptor affinities are reduced in adult rats born by a Caesarean procedure with or without an added period of anoxia" . Neuroendocrinology , 64 : 25 – 34 .
  • Bowlby , J. 1961 . "Childhood mourning and its implications for psychiatry" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 118 : 481 – 498 .
  • Bremner , J.D. , Randall , P. , Scott , T.M. , Bronen , R.A. , Seibyl , J.P. , Soutwick , S.M. , Delaney , R.C. , McCarthy , G. , Charney , D.S. and Innis , R.B. 1995 . "MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 152 : 973 – 981 .
  • Bremner , J.D. , Randall , P. , Vermetten , E. , Staib , L. , Bronen , R.A. , Mazure , C. , Capelli , S. , McCarthy , G. , Innis , R.B. and Charney , D.S. 1997a . "Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse: a preliminary report" . Biol. Psychiatry , 41 : 23 – 32 .
  • Bremner , J.D. , Licinio , J. , Darnell , A. , Krystal , J.H. , Owens , M.J. , Soutwick , S.M. , Nemeroff , C.B. and Charney , D.S. 1997b . "Elevated CSF corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 154 : 624 – 629 .
  • Britton , D.R. , Varela , M. , Garcia , A. and Rivier , J. 1986 . "Dexamethasone suppresses pituitary-adrenal but not behavioral effects of centrally administered CRF" . Life Sci. , 38 : 211 – 216 .
  • Brooke , S.M. , De Haas-Johnson , A.M. and Kaplan , J.R. 1994 . "Dexamethasone resistance among nonhuman primates associated with a selective decrease of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus and a history of social instability" . Neuroendocrinology , 60 : 134 – 140 .
  • Cabib , S. and Puglisi-Allegra , S. 1994 . "Opposite response of mesolimbic dopamine system to controllable and uncontrollable aversive experiences" . J. Neurosci. , 14 : 3333 – 3340 .
  • Cabib , S. and Puglisi-Allegra , S. 1996 . "Stress, depression and the mesolimbic dopamine system" . Psychopharmacology , 128 : 331 – 342 .
  • Caldji , C. , Tannenbaum , B. , Sharma , S. , Francis , D. , Plotsky , P.M. and Meaney , M.J. 1998 . "Maternal care during infancy regulates the development of neural systems mediating the expression of fearfulness in the rat" . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 95 : 5335 – 5340 .
  • Calogero , A. , Galluci , W.T. , Gold , P.W. and Chrousos , G.P. 1988a . "Multiple regulatory feedback loops on hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone secretion" . J. Clin. Investig. , 82 : 767 – 774 .
  • Calogero , A.E. , Gallucci , W.T. , Chrousos , G.P. and Gold , P.W. 1988b . "Effect of the catecholamines upon rat hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone secretion in vitro : clinical implications" . J. Clin. Investig. , 82 : 839 – 846 .
  • Calogero , A.E. , Bernardini , R. , Magioris , A.N. , Bagdy , G. , Gallucci , W.T. , Munson , P.J. , Tamarkin , L. , Tomai , T.P. , Brady , L. and Gold , P.W. 1989 . "Serotonin stimulates rat hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone secretion in vitro" . Peptides , 10 : 189 – 210 .
  • Calogero , A.E. , Bagdy , G. , Moncada , M.L. and D'Agata , R. 1993 . "Effect of selective serotonin agonists on basal, corticotrophin-releasing hormone- and vasopressin-induced ACTH release in vitro from rat pituitary cells" . J. Endocrinol. , 136 : 381 – 387 .
  • Carroll , B.J. 1982 . "The dexamethasone suppression test for melancholia" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 140 : 292 – 304 .
  • Catalán , R. , Gallart , J.M. , Castellanos , J.M. and Galard , R. 1998 . "Plasma corticotropin-releasing factor in depressive disorders" . Biol. Psychiatry , 44 : 15 – 20 .
  • Chalmers , D.T. , Lovenberg , T.W. , Grigoriadis , D.E. , Behan , D.P. and De Souza , E.B. 1996 . "Corticotrophin-releasing factor receptors: from molecular biology to drug design" . Trends Pharmacol. Sci. , 17 : 166 – 172 .
  • Chaouloff , F. 1993 . "Physiopharmacological interactions between stress hormones and central serotonergic systems" . Brain Res. Rev. , 18 : 1 – 32 .
  • Chaouloff , F. 1995 . "Regulation of 5-HT receptors by corticosteroids: where do we stand?" . Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. , 9 : 219 – 233 .
  • Charney , D.S. , Deutch , A.Y. , Krystal , J.H. , Southwich , S.M. and Davis , M. 1993 . "Psychobiological mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder" . Arch. Gen. Psychiat. , 50 : 294 – 305 .
  • Chrousos , G.P. and Gold , P.W. 1992 . "The concepts of stress and stress system disorders" . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 267 : 1244 – 1252 .
  • Chrousos , G.P. 1998 . "Stressors, stress, and neuroendocrine integration of the adaptive response" . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 750 : 311 – 335 .
  • Clarke , A.S. , Wittwer , D.J. , Abbott , D.H. and Schneider , M.L. 1994 . "Long-term effects of prenatal stress on HPA axis activity in juvenile rhesus monkeys" . Dev. Psychobiol. , 27 : 257 – 269 .
  • Cleare , A.J. , Blair , D. , Chambers , S. and Wessely , S. 2001 . "Urinary free cortisol in chronic fatigue syndrome" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 158 : 641 – 643 .
  • Cole , M.A. , Kim , P.J. , Kalman , B.A. and Spencer , R.L. 2000 . "Dexamethasone suppression of corticosteroid secretion: evaluation of the site of action by receptor measures and functional studies" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 25 : 151 – 167 .
  • Contarino , A. , Dellu , F. , Koob , G.F. , Smith , G.W. , Lee , K.F. , Vale , W. and Gold , L.H. 1999 . "Reduced anxiety-like and cognitive performance in mice lacking the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1" . Brain Res. , 835 : 1 – 9 .
  • Cooney , J.M. and Dinan , T.G. 1996 . "Preservation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis fast-feedback responses in depression" . Acta Psychiatr. Scand. , 94 : 449 – 453 .
  • Cooney , J.M. and Dinan , T.G. 2000 . "Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis early-feedback responses are preserved in melancholic depression: a study of sertraline treatment" . Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp. , 15 : 351 – 356 .
  • Coplan , J.D. , Andrews , M.W. , Rosenblum , L.A. , Owens , M.J. , Friedman , S. , Gorman , J.M. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1996 . "Persistent elevations of cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing factor in adult nonhuman primates exposed to early-life stressors: implications for the pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders" . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 93 : 1619 – 1623 .
  • Coplan , J.D. , Smith , E.L.P. , Trost , R.C. , Scharf , B.A. , Altemus , M. , Bjornson , L. , Owens , M.J. , Gorman , J.M. , Nemeroff , C.B. and Rosenblum , L.A. 2000 . "Growth hormone response to clonidine in adversely reared young adult primates: relationship to serial cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor" . Psychiatry Res. , 95 : 93 – 102 .
  • Cowen , P.J. and Wood , D.J. 1991 . "Biological markers of depression" . Psychol. Med. , 21 : 831 – 836 .
  • Crayton , J.W. , Joshi , I. , Gulati , A. , Arora , R.C. and Wolf , W.A. 1996 . "Effect of corticosterone on serotonin and catecholamine receptors and uptake sites in rat frontal cortex" . Brain Res. , 728 : 260 – 262 .
  • Crook , T. and Eliot , J. 1980 . "Parental death during childhood and adult depression: a critical review of the literature" . Psychol. Bull. , 87 : 252 – 259 .
  • Cullinan , W.E. , Herman , J.P. , Helmreich , D.L. and Watson , S.J. 1995 . "A neuroanatomy of stress" ” . In Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: from Normal Adaptation to PTSD , Edited by: Friedman , M.J. , Charney , D.S. and Deutch , A.Y. 3 – 26 . Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven Publishers .
  • Cunningham , E.T. , Bohn , M.C. and Sawchenko , P.E. 1990 . "The organization of adrenergic inputs to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat hypothalamus" . J. Comp. Neurol. , 292 : 651 – 667 .
  • Davis , S. , Heal , D.J. and Stanfort , S.C. 1995 . "Long-lasting effects of and acute stress on the neurochemistry and function of 5-hydroxytryptaminergic neurones in the mouse brain" . Psychopharmacology , 118 : 267 – 272 .
  • Deakin , J.F.W. , Pennell , I. , Upadhyaya , A.J. and Lofthouse , R. 1990 . "A neuroendocrine study of 5-HT function in depression: evidence for biological mechanisms of endogenous and psychosocial causation" . Psychopharmacology , 101 : 85 – 92 .
  • De Bellis , M.D. , Baum , A.S. , Birmaher , B. , Keshavan , M.S. , Eccard , C.H. , Boring , A.M. , Jenkins , F.J. and Ryan , N.D. 1999a . "Developmental traumatology part I: biological stress systems" . Biol. Psychiatry , 45 : 1259 – 1270 .
  • De Bellis , M.D. , Keshavan , M.S. , Clark , D.B. , Casey , B.J. , Giedd , J.N. , Boring , A.M. , Frustaci , K. and Ryan , N.D. 1999b . "Developmental traumatology part II: brain development" . Biol. Psychiatry , 45 : 1271 – 1284 .
  • De Goeji , D.C.E. , Kvetnansky , R. , Whitnall , M.H. , Jezova , D. , Berkenbosch , F. and Tilders , F.J.H. 1991 . "Repeated stress-induced activation of corticotropin-releasing neurons enhances vasopressin stores and co-localization with corticotropin-releasing factor in the median eminence of rats" . Neuroendocrinology , 53 : 150 – 159 .
  • De Kloet , E.R. 1991 . "Brain corticosteroid receptor balance and homeostatic control" . Front. Neuroendocrinol. , 12 : 95 – 164 .
  • De Kloet , E.R. and Reul , J.M. 1987 . "Feedback action and tonic influence of corticosteroids on brain function: a concept arising from the heterogeneity of brain receptor systems" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 12 : 83 – 105 .
  • De Kloet , E.R. , Vreugdenhil , E. , Oitzl , M.S. and Joëls , M. 1998 . "Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease" . Endocr. Rev. , 19 : 269 – 301 .
  • Demitrack , M. , Dale , J. , Straus , S. , Laue , L. , Listwak , S. , Kruesi , M. , Chrousos , G.P. and Gold , P.W. 1991 . "Evidence of impaired activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome" . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 73 : 1224 – 1234 .
  • De Souza , E.B. and De Loon , G.R. 1986 . "Brain serotonin and catecholamine responses to repeated stress in rats" . Brain Res. , 367 : 77 – 86 .
  • De Souza , E.B. 1995 . "Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors: physiology, pharmacology, biochemistry and role in central nervous system and immune disorders" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 20 : 789 – 819 .
  • Deuschle , M. , Schweiger , U. , Standhardt , H. , Weber , B. and Heuser , I. 1996 . "Corticosteroid-binding globulin is not decreased in depressed patients" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 21 : 645 – 649 .
  • Deijen , J.B. , Wientjes , C.J.E. , Vullinghs , H.F.M. , Cloin , P.A. and Langefeld , J.J. 1999 . "Tyrosine improves cognitive performance and reduces blood pressure in cadets after one week of a combat training course" . Brain Res. Bull. , 48 : 203 – 209 .
  • Dinan , T.G. 1994 . "Glucocorticoids and the genesis of depressive illness. A psychobiological model" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 164 : 365 – 371 .
  • Dinan , T.G. , Lavelle , E. , Scott , L.V. , Newell-Price , J. , Medbak , S. and Grossman , A.B. 1999 . "Desmopressin normalizes the blunted adrenocorticotropin response to corticotropin-releasing hormone in melancholic depression: evidence of enhanced vasopressinergic responsivity" . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 84 : 2238 – 2240 . St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, UK
  • Dinwiddie , S. , Heath , A.C. , Dunne , M.P. , Bucholz , K.K. , Madden , P.A.F. , Slutske , W.S. , Bierut , L.J. , Statham , D.B. and Martin , N.G. 2000 . "Early sexual abuse and lifetime psychopathology: a co-twin-control study" . Psychol. Med. , 30 : 41 – 52 .
  • Driessen , M. , Herrmann , J. , Stahl , K. , Zwaan , M. , Meier , S. , Hill , A. , Osterheider , M. and Petersen , D. 2000 . "Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 57 : 1115 – 1122 .
  • Dunn , A.J. and Berridge , C.W. 1990 . "Physiological and behavioral responses to corticotropin-releasing factor administration: is CRF a mediator of anxiety or stress responses?" . Brain Res. Rev. , 15 : 71 – 100 .
  • Durand , M. , Sarrieau , A. , Aguerre , S. , Mormède , P. and Chaouloff , F. 1998 . "Differential effects of neonatal handling on anxiety, corticosterone response to stress, and hippocampal glucocorticoid and serotonin (5-HT) 2a receptors in Lewis rats" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 23 : 323 – 335 .
  • Eaves , M. , Britton , K.T. , Rivier , J. , Vale , W. and Koob , G.F. 1985 . "Effects of corticotropin releasing factor on locomotor activity in hypophysectomized rats" . Peptides , 6 : 923 – 926 .
  • Faravelli , C. , Sacchetti , E. , Ambonetti , A. , Conte , G. , Pallanti , S. and Vita , A. 1986 . "Early life events and affective disorder revisited" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 148 : 288 – 295 .
  • Fernandes , C. , McKittrick , C.R. , File , S.E. and McEwen , B.S. 1997 . "Decreased 5-HT 1a and increased 5-HT 2a receptor binding after chronic corticosterone associated with a behavioural indication of depression but not anxiety" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 22 : 477 – 491 .
  • Field , T. 1998 . "Maternal depression effects on infants and early interventions" . Prev. Med. , 27 : 200 – 203 .
  • Fleming , J.M. 1997 . "Prevalence of childhood sexual abuse in a community sample of Australian women" . Med. J. Aust. , 166 : 65 – 68 .
  • Fone , K.C.F. , Shalders , K. , Fox , Z.D. , Arthur , R. and Marsden , C.A. 1996 . "Increased 5-HT 2c receptor responsiveness occurs on rearing rats in social isolation" . Psychopharmacology , 123 : 346 – 352 .
  • Francis , D.D. , Caldji , C. , Champagne , F. , Plotsky , P.M. and Meaney , M.J. 1999 . "The role of corticotropin-releasing factor-norepinephrine systems in mediating the effects of early experience on the development of behavioral and endocrine responses to stress" . Biol. Psychiatry , 46 : 1153 – 1166 .
  • Freud , S. 1957 . "Mourning and melancholia" ” . In The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , Edited by: Strachey . 243 – 248 . London : Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-analysis .
  • Gambarana , C. , Masi , F. , Tagliamonte , A. , Scheggi , S. , Ghiglieri , O. and Graziella De Montis , M. 1999 . "A chronic stress that impairs reactivity in rats also decreases dopaminergic transmission in the nucleus accumbens: a microdialysis study" . J. Neurochem. , 72 : 2039 – 2046 .
  • Garcia-Marquez , C. and Armario , A. 1987 . "Chronic stress depresses exploratory activity and behavioral performance in the forced swimming test without altering ACTH response to a novel acute stressor" . Physiol. Behav. , 40 : 33 – 38 .
  • Geracioti , T.D. , Loosen , P.T. and Orth , D.N. 1997 . "Low cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing hormone concentrations in eucortisolemic depression" . Biol. Psychiatry , 42 : 166 – 174 .
  • Ghadirian , A.M. , Engelsmann , F. , Dhar , V. , Filipini , D. , Keller , R. , Chouinard , G. and Murphy , B.E.P. 1995 . "The psychotropic effects of inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis in depressed patients refractory to treatment" . J. Biol. Psychiatry , 37 : 369 – 375 .
  • Gillies , G.E. , Linton , E.A. and Lowry , P.J. 1982 . "Corticotropin releasing activity of the new CRF is potentiated several times by vasopressin" . Nature , 299 : 355 – 357 .
  • Gold , P.W. , Loriaux , D.L. , Roy , A. , Kling , M.A. , Calabrese , I.R. , Kellner , C.H. , Nieman , L.K. , Post , R.M. , Pickar , D. , Gallucci , W. , Avgerinos , P. , Paul , S. , Oldfield , E.H. , Cutler , G.B. and Chrousos , G.P. 1986 . "Responses to corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypercortisolism of depression and Cushing's disease: pathophysiologic and diagnostic implications" . N. Engl. J. Med. , 314 : 1329 – 1335 .
  • Gould , E. , Reeves , A.J. , Fallah , M. , Tapanat , P. , Gross , C.G. and Fuchs , E. 1999 . "Hippocampal neurogenesis in adult old world primates" . Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. , 96 : 5263 – 5267 .
  • Gurvits , T.V. , Shenton , M.E. , Hokama , H. , Ohta , H. , Lasko , N.B. , Gilbertson , M.W. , Orr , S.P. , Kikinis , R. , Jolesz , F.A. , McCarley , R.W. and Pitman , R.K. 1996 . "Magnetic resonance imaging study of hippocampal volume in chronic, combat related posttraumatic stress disorder" . Biol. Psychiatry , 40 : 1091 – 1099 .
  • Habib , K.E. , Weld , K.P. , Rice , K.C. , Pushkas , J. , Champoux , M. , Listwak , S. , Webster , E.L. , Atkinson , A.J. , Schulkin , J. , Contoreggi , C. , Chrousos , G.P. , McCann , S.M. , Suomi , S.J. , Higley , J.D. and Gold , P.W. 2000 . "Oral administration of a corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist significantly attenuates behavioral, neuroendocrine, and autonomic responses to stress in primates" . PNAS , 97 : 6079 – 6084 .
  • Hallstrom , T. 1987 . "The relationships of childhood socio-demographic factors and early parental loss to major depression in adult life" . Acta Psychiatr. Scand. , 75 : 212 – 216 .
  • Harris , T. , Brown , G.W. and Bufulco , A. 1986 . "Loss in parent in childhood and adult psychiatric disorder: the role of lack of adequate parental care" . Psychol. Med. , 16 : 641 – 659 .
  • Harris , T.O. , Borsanyi , S. , Messari , S. , Stanford , K. , Cleary , S.E. , Shiers , H.M. , Brown , G.W. and Herbert , J. 2000 . "Morning cortisol as a risk factor for subsequent major depressive disorder in adult women" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 177 : 505 – 510 .
  • Heim , C. , Newport , D.J. , Hert , S. , Graham , Y.P. , Wilcox , M. , Bronsall , R. , Miller , A.H. and Nemeroff , C.B. 2000 . "Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood" . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 284 : 592 – 597 .
  • Heim , C. , Newport , J. , Bonsall , R. , Miller , A.H. and Nemeroff , Ch.B. 2001 . "Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 158 : 575 – 581 .
  • Heinrichs , S.C. , Menzaghi , F. , Merlo Pich , E. , Britton , K.T. and Koob , G.F. 1995 . "The role of CRF in behavioral aspects of stress" . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 771 : 92 – 104 .
  • Heinrichs , S.C. , Lapsansky , J. , Lovenberg , T.W. , De Souza , E.B. and Chalmers , D.T. 1997 . "Corticotropin-releasing factor CRF 1, but not CRF 2, receptors mediate anxiogenic-like behavior" . Regul. Pept. , 71 : 15 – 21 .
  • Henn , F.A. and Edwards , E. 1994 . "Animal models in the study of genetic factors in human psychopathology" ” . In Genetic Studies in Affective Disorders , Edited by: Papolos , D.F. and Lachman , H.M. 177 – 192 . New York : Brunner Mazel .
  • Herman , J.P. and Cullinan , W.E. 1997 . "Neurocircuitry of stress: central control of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis" . Trends Neurosci. , 20 : 78 – 84 .
  • Hill , J. , Davis , R. , Byatt , M. , Burnside , E. , Rollinson , L. and Fear , S. 2000 . "Childhood sexual abuse and affective symptoms in women: a general population study" . Psychol. Med. , 30 : 1283 – 1291 .
  • Holsboer , F. 2000 . "The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 23 : 477 – 501 .
  • Holsboer , F. 2001 . "Stress, hypercortisolism and corticosteroid receptors in depression: implications for therapy" . J. Affect. Disord. , 62 : 77 – 91 .
  • Honig , A. and Van Praag , H.M. Depression: Neurobiological, Psychopathological and Therapeutic Advances , Chichester : John Wiley .
  • Hucks , D. , Lowther , S. , Rufus Crompton , M. , Katona , C.L.E. and Horton , R.W. 1997 . "Corticotropin-releasing factor binding sites in cortex of depressed suicides" . Psychopharmacology , 134 : 174 – 178 .
  • Imperato , A. , Angelucci , L. , Casolini , P. , Zocchi , A. and Puglisi-Allegra , S. 1992 . "Repeated stressful experiences differently affect limbic dopamine release during and following stress" . Brain Res. , 577 : 194 – 199 .
  • Jacobson , L. and Sapolsky , R. 1991 . "The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis" . Endocr. Rev. , 12 : 118 – 134 .
  • Joëls , M. and De Kloet , E.R. 1992 . "Control of neuronal excitability by corticosteroid hormones" . Trends Neurosci. , 15 : 25 – 30 .
  • Joëls , M. and De Kloet , E. 1994 . "Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors in the brain. Implications for ion permeability and transmitter systems" . Prog. Neurobiol. , 43 : 1 – 36 .
  • Joëls , M. and De Kloet , E. 1995 . "Corticosteroid hormones: endocrine messengers in the brain" . NIPS , 10 : 71 – 73 .
  • Johnson , J.G. , Cohen , P. , Brown , J. , Smailes , E.M. and Bernstein , D.P. 1999 . "Childhood maltreatment increases risk for personality disorders during early adulthood" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 56 : 600 – 606 .
  • Jones , M.T. and Gilham , B. 1988 . "Factors involved in the regulation of adrenocorticotropic hormone/beta-lipotropic hormone" . Physiol. Rev. , 68 : 743 – 817 .
  • Joyce , P.R. , Mulder , R.T. and Cloninger , C.R. 1994 . "Temperament and hypercortisolemia in depression" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 151 : 195 – 198 .
  • Kahn , R.S. and Van Praag , H.M. 1988 . "A serotonin hypothesis of panic disorder" . Hum. Psychopharmacol. , 3 : 285 – 288 .
  • Karten , Y.J.G. , Nair , S.M. , Van Essen , L. , Sibug , R. and Joëls , M. 1999 . "Long-term exposure to high corticosterone levels attenuates serotonin responses in rat hippocampal CA1 neurons" . PNAS , 96 : 13456 – 13461 .
  • Kaufman , J. and Henrich , C. 2000 . "Exposure to violence and early childhood trauma" ” . In Handbook of Infant Mental Health , Edited by: Zeanah , C. 195 – 207 . New York : Guilford .
  • Kaufman , J. , Plotsky , P.M. , Nemeroff , C.B. and Charney , D.S. 2000 . "Effects of early adverse experiences on brain structure and function: clinical implications" . Biol. Psychiatry , 48 : 778 – 790 .
  • Kendler , K.S. , Neale , M.C. , Kessler , R.C. , Heath , A.C. and Eaves , L.J. 1992 . "Childhood parental loss and adult psychopathology in women. A twin study perspective" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 49 : 109 – 116 .
  • Kendler , K.S. , Kessler , R.C. , Walters , E.E. , MacLean , C. , Neale , M.C. , Heath , A.C. and Eaves , L.J. 1995 . "Stressful life events, genetic liability, and onset of an episode of major depression in women" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 152 : 833 – 842 .
  • Kessler , R.C. , Davis , C.G. and Kendler , K.S. 1997 . "Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US National comorbidity survey" . Psychol. Med. , 27 : 1101 – 1119 .
  • King , J.A. and Edwards , E. 1999 . "Early stress and genetic influences on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning in adulthood" . Horm. Behav. , 36 : 79 – 85 .
  • Kishimoto , T. , Radulovic , J. , Radulovic , M. , Lin , C.R. , Schrick , C. , Hooshmand , F. , Hermanson , O. , Rosenfeld , M.G. and Spiess , J. 2000 . "Deletion of crhr2 reveals an anxiolytic role for corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-2" . Nat. Genet. , 24 : 415 – 419 .
  • Kling , M.A. , Roy , A. , Doran , A.R. , Calabrese , J.R. , Rubinow , D.R. , Whitfield , H.J. , May , C. , Post , R.M. , Chrousos , G.P. and Gold , P.W. 1991 . "Cerebrospinal fluid immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone and adrenocorticotropin secretion in Cushing's disease and major depression: potential clinical implications" . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 72 : 260 – 271 .
  • Koob , G.F. , Heinrichs , S.C. , Pich , E.M. , Menzaghi , F. , Baldwin , H. , Miczek , K. and Britton , K.T. 1993 . "The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in behavioral responses to stress" ” . In Corticotropin-Releasing Factor: Basic and Clinical Studies of a Neuropeptide , Edited by: De Souza , E.B. and Nemeroff , C.B. 277 – 295 . Chichester : John Wiley and Sons .
  • Koolhaas , J.M. , Korte , S.M. , De Boer , S.F. , Van der Vegt , B.J. , Van Reenen , C.G. , Hopster , H. , De Jong , I.C. , Ruis , M.A.W. and Blokhuis , H.J. 1999 . "Coping styles in animals: current status in behavior and stress-physiology" . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. , 23 : 925 – 935 .
  • Krishnan , K.R.R. , Doraiswamy , P.M. , Lurie , S.N. , Figiel , G.S. , Husain , M.M. , Boyko , O.B. , Ellinwood , E.H. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1991 . "Pituitary size in depression" . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 72 : 256 – 259 .
  • Kuroda , Y. , Mikuni , M. , Ogawa , T. and Takahashi , K. 1992 . "Effect of ACTH, adrenalectomy and the combination treatment of the density of 5-HT 2 receptor binding sites in neocortex of rat forebrain and 5-HT 2 receptor-mediated wet-dog shake behaviors" . Psychopharmacology , 108 : 27 – 32 .
  • Ladd , C.O. , Owens , M.J. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1996 . "Persistent changes in corticotropin-releasing factor neuronal systems induced by maternal deprivation" . Endocrinology , 137 : 1212 – 1218 .
  • Lechin , F. , Van der Dijs , B. and Benaim , M. 1996 . "Stress versus depression" . Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry , 20 : 899 – 950 .
  • Lehnert , H. , Reinstein , D.K. , Strowbridge , B.W. and Wurtman , R.J. 1984 . "Neurochemical and behavioral consequences of acute uncontrollable stress: effects of dietary tyrosine" . Brain Res. , 303 : 215 – 223 .
  • Lesch , K.P. , Mayer , S. , Disselkamp-Tietze Hoh , A. , Wiesmann , M. , Osterheider , M. and Schulte , H.M. 1990 . "5-HT 1a receptor responsivity in unipolar depression: evaluation of ipsapirone-induced ACTH and cortisol secretion in patients and controls" . Biol. Psychiatry , 28 : 620 – 628 .
  • Levine , S. , Lyons , D.M. and Schatzberg , A.F. 1997 . "Psychobiological consequences of social relationships" . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 807 : 210 – 218 .
  • Levitan , R.D. , Parikh , S.V. , Lesage , A.D. , Hegadoren , K.M. , Adams , M. , Kennedy , S.H. and Goering , P.N. 1998 . "Major depression in individuals with a history of childhood physical or sexual abuse: relationship to neurovegetative features, mania, and gender" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 155 : 1746 – 1752 .
  • Lindley , S.E. , Bengoechea , T.G. , Schatzberg , A.F. and Wong , D.L. 1999 . "Glucocortioid effects on mesotelencephalic dopamine neurotransmission" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 21 : 399 – 407 .
  • Liu , D. , Diorio , J. , Tannenbaum , B. , Caldji , C. , Francis , D. , Freedman , A. , Sharma , S. , Pearson , D. , Plotsky , P.M. and Meaney , M.J. 1997 . "Maternal care hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress" . Science , 277 : 1659 – 1662 .
  • Lloyd , C. 1980 . "Life events and depressive disorder revisited. I. Event as predisposing factors" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 37 : 529 – 535 .
  • Lopez , J.F. , Akil , H. and Watson , S.J. 1999 . "Neural circuits mediating stress" . Biol. Psychiatry , 46 : 1461 – 1471 .
  • Maccari , S. , Vincenzo Piazza , P. , Rouge-Pont , F. , Angelucci , L. , Simon , H. and Le Moal , M. 1992 . "Noradrenergic regulation of type-I and type-II corticosteroid receptors in amygdala and hypothalamus" . Brain Res. , 587 : 313 – 318 .
  • Maccari , S. , Piazza , P.V. , Kabbaj , M. , Barbazanges , A. , Simon , H. and Le Moal , M. 1995 . "Adoption reverses the long-term impairment in glucocorticoid feedback induced by prenatal stress" . J. Neurosci. , 15 : 110 – 116 .
  • Maes , M. and Meltzer , H. 1995 . "The serotonin hypothesis of major depression" ” . In Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progres , Edited by: Bloom , F.E. and Kupfer , D.J. 933 – 944 . New York : Raven Press .
  • Magarinos , A.M. , Verdugo , J.M.G. and McEwen , B.S. 1997 . "Chronic stress alters synaptic terminal structure in hippocampus" . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 94 : 14002 – 14008 .
  • Maines , L.W. , Keck , B.J. , Smith , J.E. and Lakoski , J.M. 1999 . "Corticosterone regulation of serotonin transporter and 5-HT 1a receptor expression in the aging brain" . Synapse , 32 : 58 – 66 .
  • Makino , S. , Gold , P.W. and Schulkin , J. 1994 . "Corticosterone effects on corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA in the central nucleus of the amygdala and the parvocellular region of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus" . Brain Res. , 64 : 105 – 112 .
  • Malison , R.T. , Anand , A. , Pelton , G.H. , Kirwin , P. , Carpenter , L. , McDougle , C.J. , Heninger , G.R. and Price , L.H. 1999 . "Limited efficacy of ketoconazole in treatment-refractory major depression" . J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. , 19 : 466 – 470 .
  • McBurnett , K. , Lahey , B.B. , Rathouz , P.J. and Loeber , R. 2000 . "Low salivary control and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 57 : 38 – 43 .
  • McCauley , J. , Kern , D.E. , Kolodner , K. , Dill , L. and Schroeder , A.F. 1997 . "Clinical characteristics of women with a history of childhood abuse" . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 277 : 1362 – 1368 .
  • McEwen , B.S. 1995 . "Adrenal steroid actions on brain" ” . In Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to PTSD , Edited by: Friedman , M.J. , Charney , D.S. and Deutch , A.J. 135 – 147 . Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven Publishers .
  • McEwen , B.S. 1998 . "Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators" . N. Engl. J. Med. , 338 : 171 – 179 .
  • McEwen , B.S. and Stellar , E. 1993 . "Stress and the individual: mechanisms leading to disease" . Arch. Intern. Med. , 153 : 2093 – 2101 .
  • McEwen , B.S. and Sapolsky , R.M. 1995 . "Stress and cognitive function" . Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. , 5 : 205 – 216 .
  • McEwen , B.S. , De Kloet , E.R. and Rostene , W. 1986 . "Adrenal steroid receptors and actions in the nervous system" . Physiol. Rev. , 66 : 1121 – 1188 .
  • McKibben , L. , De Vos , E. and Newberger , E.H. 1989 . "Victimization of mothers of abused children: a controlled study" . Pediatrics , 84 : 531 – 535 .
  • McKinney , W.T. Moran and Kraemer , G.W. 1984 . "Separation in non-human primates as a model for human depression: neurobiological implications" ” . In Neurobiology of Mood Disorders , Edited by: Post , R. and Ballenger , J. 393 – 406 . Baltimore : Williams and Wilkens .
  • McKittrick , C.R. , Blanchard , D.C. , Blanchard , R.J. , McEwen , B.S. and Sakai , R.R. 1995 . "Serotonin receptor binding in a colony model of chronic social stress" . Biol. Psychiatry , 37 : 383 – 393 .
  • McQuade , R. and Young , A.H. 2000 . "Future therapeutic targets in mood disorders: the glucocorticoid receptor" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 177 : 390 – 395 .
  • Meaney , M.J. , Aitken , D.H. , Bhatnagar , S. , Van Berkel , C. and Sapolsky , R.M. 1988 . "Postnatal handling attenuates neuroendocrine, anatomical, and cognitive impairments related to the aged hippocampus" . Science , 283 : 766 – 768 .
  • Mervaala , E. , Föhr , J. , Könönen , M. , Valkonen-Korhonen , M. , Vainio , P. , Partanen , K. , Partanen , J. , Tiihonen , J. , Viinamäki , H. , Karjalainen , A.-K. and Lehtonen , J. 2000 . "Quantitative MRI of the hippocampus and amygdala in severe depression" . Psychol. Med. , 30 : 117 – 125 .
  • Meijer , O.C. and De Kloet , E.R. 1994 . "Corticosterone suppresses the expression of 5-HT 1a receptor mRNA in rat dentate gyrus" . Eur. J. Pharmacol. Mol. Pharm. Sect. , 266 : 255 – 261 .
  • Meijer , O.C. and De Kloet , E.R. 1995 . "A role for the mineralocorticoid receptor in a rapid and transient suppression of hippocampal 5-HT 1a receptor mRNA by corticosterone" . J. Neuroendocrinol. , 7 : 653 – 657 .
  • Meijer , O.C. and De Koet , E.R. 1998 . "Corticosterone and serotonergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus: functional implications of central corticosteroid receptor diversity" . Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. , 12 : 1 – 20 .
  • Meijer , O.C. , Kortekaas , R. , Oitzl , M.S. and De Kloet , E.R. 1998 . "Acute rise in corticosterone facilitates 5-HT 1a receptor-mediated behavioural responses" . Eur. J. Pharmacol. , 351 : 7 – 14 .
  • Meyer , J.S. 1985 . "Biochemical effects of corticosteroids on neural tissues" . Physiol. Rev. , 65 : 946 – 1020 .
  • Mitchell , J.B. , Rowe , W. , Boksa , P. and Meaney , M.J. 1990 . "Serotonin regulates type II corticosteroid receptor binding in hippocampal cell cultures" . J. Neurosci. , 10 : 1745 – 1752 .
  • Modell , S. , Yassouridis , A. , Huber , J. and Holsboer , F. 1997 . "Corticosteroid receptor function is decreased in depressed patients" . Neuroendocrinology , 65 : 216 – 222 .
  • Modell , S. , Lauer , C.J. , Schreiber , M. , Huber , J. , Krieg , J.C. and Holsboer , F. 1998 . "Hormonal response pattern in the combined DEX-CRH test is stable over time in subjects at high familial risk for affective disorders" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 18 : 253 – 262 .
  • Moghaddam , B. 1993 . "Stress preferentially increases extraneuronal levels of excitatory amino acids in the prefrontal cortex: comparison to hippocampus and basal ganglia" . J. Neurochem. , 60 : 1650 – 1657 .
  • Müller , M.B. , Lucassen , P.J. , Yassouridis , A. , Hoogendijk , W.J. , Holsboer , F. and Swaab , D.F. 2001 . "Neither major depression nor glucocorticoid treatment affects the cellular integrity of the human hippocampus" . Eur. J. Neurosci. , 14 : 1603 – 1612 .
  • Murphy , B.E.P. 1997 . "Antiglucocorticoid therapies in major depression: a review" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 22 : S125 – S132 .
  • Murphy , B.E.P. , Dhar , V. , Ghadirian , A.M. , Chouinard , G. and Keller , R. 1991 . "Response to steroid suppression in major depression resistant to antidepressant therapy" . J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. , 11 : 121 – 126 .
  • Musselman , D.L. , De Battista , Ch. , Nathan , K.I. , Kilts , C.D. , Schatzberg , A.F. and Nemeroff , Ch.B. 1998 . "Biology of mood disorders" ” . In Textbook of Psychopharmacology , Edited by: Schatzberg , A.F. and Nemeroff , Ch.B. 549 – 588 . Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
  • National Research Council . 1993 . Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • Nemeroff , C.B. 1996 . "The corticotropin-releasing factor hypothesis of depression: new findings and directions" . Mol. Psychiatry , 1 : 336 – 342 .
  • Nemeroff , C.B. , Widerlöv , E. , Bissette , G. , Walleus , H. , Karlsson , I. , Eklund , K. , Kilts , C.D. , Loosen , P.T. and Vale , W. 1984 . "Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients" . Science , 226 : 1342 – 1344 .
  • Nemeroff , C.B. , Owens , M.J. , Bissette , G. , Andorn , A.C. and Stanley , M. 1988 . "Reduced corticotropin-releasing factor binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicide victims" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 45 : 577 – 579 .
  • Nemeroff , C.B. , Krishnan , K.R.R. , Reed , D. , Leder , D. , Beam , C. and Dunnick , N.R. 1992 . "Adrenal gland enlargement in major depression: computed tomography study" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 49 : 196 – 202 .
  • Neumaier , J.F. , Petty , F. , Kramer , G.L. , Szot , P. and Hamblin , M.W. 1997 . "Learned helplessness increases 5-hydroxytryptamine 1b receptor mRNA levels in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus" . Biol. Psychiatry , 41 : 668 – 674 .
  • Nuller , J.L. and Ostroumova , M.N. 1980 . "Resistance to inhibiting effect of dexamethasone in patients with endogenous depression" . Acta Psychiatr. Scand. , 61 : 169 – 177 .
  • Owens , M.J. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1991 . "Physiology and pharmacology of corticotropin-releasing factor" . Pharmacol. Rev. , 43 : 425 – 473 .
  • Owens , M.J. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1999 . "Corticotropin-releasing factor antagonists" . CNS Drugs , 12 : 85 – 92 .
  • Owens , M.J. , Edwards , E. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1990 . "Effects of 5-HT 1a receptor agonists on hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and corticotropin-releasing factor containing neurons in the rat brain" . Eur. J. Pharmacol. , 190 : 113 – 120 .
  • Pajer , K. , Gardner , W. , Rubin , R.T. , Perel , J. and Neal , S. 2001 . "Decreased cortisol levels in adolescent girls with conduct disorder" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 58 : 297 – 302 .
  • Perry , B.D. , Giller , E.L. and Southwick , S.M. 1987 . "Altered platelet alpha-2-adrenergic binding sites in posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 144 : 1511 – 1512 .
  • Petty , F. , Kramer , G. and Wilson , L. 1992 . "Prevention of learned helplessness: in vivo correlation with cortical serotonin" . Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. , 43 : 3631 – 3637 .
  • Piazza , P.V. , Rougé-Pont , F. , Derouche , V. , Maccari , S. , Simon , H. and Le Moal , M. 1996 . "Glucocorticoids have state-dependent stimulant effects on the mesencephalic dopaminergic transmission" . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 93 : 8716 – 8720 .
  • Pitman , R.K. and Orr , S.P. 19990 . "Twenty-four hour urinary and catecholamine excretion in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder" . Biol. Psychiatry , 27 : 245 – 247 .
  • Plotsky , P. and Meany , M. 1993 . "Early postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA, median eminence CRF content, and stress-induced release in adult rats" . Mol. Brain Res. , 18 : 195 – 200 .
  • Plotsky , P.M. , Thrivikraman , K.V. , Su , Y. , Caldji , C. , Sharma , S. and Meaney , M.J. 1998 . "The effects on neonatal rearing environment on CRF mRNA and CRF receptor levels in adult rat brain" . J. Neurosci. , 20 : 4657 – 4668 .
  • Porter , R. , McAllister-Williams , R.H. , Lunn , B. and Young , A. 1998 . "5-Hydroxytryptamine receptor function in man is reduced by acute administration of hydrocortisone" . Psychopharmacology , 139 : 243 – 250 .
  • Porter , R.J. , McAllister-Williams , R.H. , Jones , S. and Young , A.H. 1999 . "Effects of dexamethasone on neuroendocrine and psychological responses to l -tryptophan infusion" . Psychopharmacology , 143 : 64 – 71 .
  • Posener , J.A. , DeBattista , C. , Williams , G.H. , Kraemer , H.C. , Kalehzan , M. and Schatzberg , A.F. 2000 . "24-Hour monitoring of cortisol and corticotropin secretion in psychotic and nonpsychotic major depression" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 57 : 755 – 760 .
  • Price , L.H. , Cappiello , A. , Malison , R.T. , McDougle , C.J. , Pelton , G.H. , Schöllnhammer , G. and Heninger , G.R. 1997 . "Effects of antiglucocorticoid treatment on 5-HT 1a function in depressed patients and healthy subjects" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 17 : 246 – 257 .
  • Pugh , C.R. , Tremblay , D. , Fleshner , M. and Rudy , J.W. 1997 . "Selective role for corticosterone in contextual-fear conditioning" . Behav. Neurosci. , 111 : 503 – 511 .
  • Puglisi-Allegra , S. , Imperato , A. , Angelucci , L. and Cabib , S. 1991 . "Acute stress induces time-dependent responses in dopamine mesolimbic system" . Brain Res. , 554 : 217 – 222 .
  • Purba , J.S. , Hoogendijk , W.J.G. , Hofman , M.A. and Swaab , D.F. 1996 . "Increased number of vasopressin neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the human hypothalamus in depression" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 53 : 137 – 143 .
  • Raadsheer , F.C. , Hoogendijk , W.J.G. , Hofman , M.A. and Swaab , D.F. 1994 . "Increased numbers of corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the hypothalamic-paraventricular nucleus of depressed patients" . Clin. Neuroendocrinol. , 60 : 436 – 444 .
  • Raadsheer , F.C. , Van Heerikhuize , J.J. , Lucassen , P.J. , Hoogendijk , W.J. , Tilders , F.J. and Swaab , D.F. 1995 . "Corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA levels in the paraventricular nucleus of patients with Alzheimer's disease and depression" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 152 : 1372 – 1376 .
  • Ravaris , C.L. , Sateia , M.J. , Beroza , K.W. and Noordsy , D.L. 1988 . "Effect of ketoconazole on a hypophysectomized, hypercortisolemic, psychotically depressed woman" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 45 : 966 – 967 .
  • Resnick , H.S. , Yehuda , R. , Foy , D.W. and Pitman , R.K. 1995 . "Effect of prior trauma on acute hormonal response to rape" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 152 : 1675 – 1677 .
  • Reul , J.M.H.M. , van den Bosch , F.R. and De Kloet , E.R. 1987 . "Relative occupation of type-I and type-II corticosteroid receptors in rat brain following stress and dexamethasone treatment: functional implications" . J. Endocrinol. , 115 : 459 – 467 .
  • Reul , J.M. , Stec , I. , Soder , M. and Holsboer , F. 1993 . "Chronic treatment of rats with the antidepressant amitriptyline attenuates the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system" . Endocrinology , 133 : 312 – 320 .
  • Reus , V.I. 1982 . "Pituitary-adrenal disinhibition as the independent variable in the assessment of behavioral symptoms" . Biol. Psychiatry , 17 : 317 – 325 .
  • Reus , V.I. , Wolkowitz , O.M. and Frederick , S. 1997 . "Antiglucocorticoid treatments in psychiatry" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 22 : S121 – S124 .
  • Rinne , T. , Westenberg , H.G.M. , Den Boer , J.A. and van den Brink , W. 2000 . "Serotonergic blunting to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m -CPP) highly correlates with sustained childhood abuse in impulsive and autoaggressive female borderline patients" . Biol. Psychiatry , 47 : 548 – 556 .
  • Rosenblum , L.A. and Paully , G.S. 1984 . "The effects of varying environmental demands on maternal and infant behavior" . Child Dev. , 55 : 305 – 314 .
  • Rosenblum , L.A. , Coplan , J.D. , Friedman , S. , Bassoff , T. , Gorman , J.M. and Andrews , M.W. 1994 . "Adverse early experiences affect noradrenergic and serotonergic functioning in adult primates" . Biol. Psychiatry , 35 : 221 – 227 .
  • Rothchild , A.J. , Langlais , P.J. , Schatzberg , A.F. , Walsh , F.X. , Cole , J.O. and Bird , E.D. 1984 . "Dexamethasone increases plasma free dopamine in man" . J. Psychiatr. Res. , 18 : 217 – 223 .
  • Roy , A. 1985 . "Early parental separation and adult depression" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 42 : 987 – 991 .
  • Rubin , R.T. , Poland , R.E. , Lesser , I.M. , Winston , R.A. and Blodgett , N.A. 1987 . "Neuroendocrine aspects of primary endogenous depression: cortisol secretory dynamics in patients and matched controls" . Arch.Gen. Psychiatry , 44 : 328 – 336 .
  • Sachar , E. , Hellman , L. , Fukushima , D.K. and Gallagher , T.F. 1970 . "Cortisol production in depressive illness" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 23 : 289 – 298 .
  • Sadowski , H. , Ugarte , B. , Kolvin , I. , Kaplan , C. and Barnes , J. 1999 . "Early life family disadvantages and major depression in adulthood" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 174 : 112 – 120 .
  • Sapolsky , R.M. 1996 . "Why stress is bad for your brain" . Science , 273 : 749 – 750 .
  • Sapolsky , R.M. , Krey , L.C. and McEwen , B.S. 1986 . "The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis" . Endocr. Rev. , 7 : 284 – 301 .
  • Sapolsky , R.M. , Uno , H. , Rebert , C.S. and Finch , C.E. 1990 . "Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates" . J. Neurosci. , 10 : 2897 – 2902 .
  • Sargent , P.A. , Husted , K. , Bench , K. , Rabiner , Ch.r.J. , Messa , E.A. , Meyer , C. , Gunn , J. , Grasby , P.M. and Cowen , Ph.J. 2000 . "Brain serotonin 1A receptor binding measured by positron emission tomography with [″C]WAY-100635. Effects of depression and antidepressant treatment" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 57 : 174 – 180 .
  • Schreiber , W. , Lauer , C.J. , Krumrey , K. , Holsboer , F. and Krieg , J.C. 1996 . "Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system in panic disorder" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 15 : 7 – 15 .
  • Schulkin , J. , Gold , P.W. and McEwen , B.S. 1998 . "Induction of corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression by glucocorticoids: implication for understanding the states of fear and anxiety and allostatic load" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 23 : 219 – 243 .
  • Scott , L.V. , Thakore , J. , Burnett , F. and Dinan , T.G. 1999 . "A preliminary study of dexamethasone treatment on pituitary-adrenal responsivity in major depression" . Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp. , 14 : 587 – 591 .
  • Seckl , J. and Fink , G. 1991 . "Use of in situ hybridization to investigate the regulation of hippocampal corticosteroid receptors by monoamines" . J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. , 40 : 685 – 688 .
  • Seckl , J.R. and Fink , G. 1992 . "Antidepressants increase glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in rat hippocampus in vivo" . Neuroendocrinology , 55 : 621 – 626 .
  • Selye , H. 1936 . "Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents" . Nature , 138 : 32
  • Sheline , Y.I. , Wang , P.W. , Gado , M.H. , Csernansky , J.G. and Vannier , M.W. 1996 . "Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression" . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 93 : 3908 – 3913 .
  • Skutella , T. , Criswell , H. , Moy , S. , Probst , J.C. , Breese , G.R. , Jirikowski , G.F. and Holsboer , F. 1994 . "Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) antisense oligodeoxynucleotide induces anxiolytic effects in rat" . Neuroreport , 2 : 2181 – 2185 .
  • Smith , M.A. 1996 . "Hippocampal vulnerability to stress and aging: possible role of neurotrophic factors" . Behav. Brain Res. , 78 : 25 – 36 .
  • Smith , C.E. , Ware , C.J. and Cowen , P.J. 1991 . "Pindolol decreases prolactin and growth hormone responses to intravenous l -tryptophan" . Psychopharmacology , 103 : 140 – 142 .
  • Southwick , S.S. , Yehuda , R. and Wang , S. 1998 . "Neuroendocrine alterations in posttraumatic stress disorder" . Psychiatr. Ann. , 28 : 436 – 442 .
  • Spencer , R.L. , Miller , A.H. , Moday , H. , McEwen , B.S. , Blanchard , R.J. , Blanchard , D.C. and Sakai , R.R. 1996 . "Chronic social stress produces reductions in available splenic type II corticosteroid receptor binding and plasma corticosteroid binding globulin levels" . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 21 : 95 – 109 .
  • Starkman , M.N. , Gebarski , S.S. , Berent , S. and Schteingart , D.E. 1992 . "Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing's syndrome" . Biol. Psychiatry , 32 : 756 – 765 .
  • Steiger , H. , Gauvin , L. , Israël , M. , Koerner , N. , Ng Ying Kin , N.M.K. , Paris , J. and Young , S.N. 2001 . "Association of serotonin and cortisol indices with childhood abuse in bulimia nervosa" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 58 : 837 – 843 .
  • Stein , M.B. , Yehuda , R. , Koverola , C. and Hanna , C. 1997a . "Enhanced dexamethasone suppression of plasma cortisol in adult women traumatized by childhood sexual abuse" . Biol. Psychiatry , 42 : 680 – 686 .
  • Stein , M.B. , Koverola , C. , Hanna , C. , Torchia , M.G. and McClarty , B. 1997b . "Hippocampal volume in women victimized by childhood sexual abuse" . Psychol. Med. , 27 : 951 – 959 .
  • Stenzel-Poore , M.P. , Heinrichs , S.C. , Rivest , S. , Koob , G.F. and Vale , W.W. 1994 . "Overproduction of corticotropin-releasing factor in transgenic mice: a genetic model of anxiogenic behavior" . J. Neurosci. , 14 : 2579 – 2584 .
  • Sterling , P. and Eyer , J. 1981 . "Allostasis: a new paradigm to explain arousal pathology" ” . In Handbook of life stress, cognition and health , Edited by: Fisher , S. and Reason , J. 629 – 649 . New York : John Wiley .
  • Stout , S.C. , Kilts , C.D. and Nemeroff , C.B. 1995 . "Neuropeptides and stress. Preclinical findings and implications for pathophysiology" ” . In Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: from normal adaptation to PTSD , Edited by: Friedman , M.J. , Charney , D.S. and Deutch , A.Y. 103 – 123 . Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven Publishers .
  • Tauscher , J. , Bagby , R.M. , Javanmard , M. , Christensen , B.K. , Kasper , S. and Kapur , S. 2001 . "Inverse relationship between serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor binding and anxiety: A[ 11 C]WAY-100635 PET investigation in healthy volunteers" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 158 : 1326 – 1328 .
  • Tennant , C. 1988 . "Parental loss in childhood: its effect in adult life" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 45 : 1045 – 1050 .
  • Thakore , J.H. and Dinan , T.G. 1994 . "d -Fenfluramine-induced prolactin release in depression: the acute effects of ketoconazole" . J. Seroton. Res. , 3 : 7 – 213 .
  • Timpl , P. , Spanagel , R. , Sillaber , I. , Kresse , A. , Reul , J.M.H.M. , Stalla , G.K. , Blanquet , V. , Steckler , T. , Holsboer , F. and Wurst , W. 1998 . "Impaired stress response and reduced anxiety in mice lacking a functional corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1" . Nat. Genet. , 19 : 162 – 166 .
  • Vakili , K. , Pillay , S.S. , Lafer , B. , Fava , M. , Renshaw , P.F. , Bonello-Cintron , C.M. and Yurgelun-Todd , D.A. 2000 . "Hippocampal volume in primary unipolar major depression: a magnetic resonance imaging study" . Biol. Psychiatry , 47 : 1087 – 1090 .
  • Vale , W.J. , Spies , J. , Rivier , C. and Rivier , J. 1981 . "Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and β-endorphin" . Science , 213 : 1394 – 1396 .
  • Valentino , R.J. , Foote , S.L. and Aston-Jones , G. 1983 . "Corticotropin-releasing hormone activates noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus" . Brain Res. , 270 : 363 – 367 .
  • Van der Kolk , B.A. , Pelcovitz , D. , Roth , S. , Mandel , F.S. , Mc Farlane , A. and Herman , J.L. 1996 . "Dissociation, somatization, and affect dysregulation: the complexity of adaptation to trauma" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 153 (Suppl. 7) : 83 – 93 .
  • Vanderpool , J. , Rosenthal , N. , Chrousos , G.P. , Wehr , T. , Skewerer , R. , Kasper , S. and Gold , P.W. 1991 . "Evidence for hypothalamic CRH deficiency in patients with seasonal affective disorder" . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 72 : 1382 – 1387 .
  • Van Londen , L. , Goekoop , J.G. , Van Kempen , G.M. , Frankhuijzen Sierevogel , A.C. , Wiegant , V.M. , Van der Velde , E.A. and De Wied , D. 1997 . "Plasma levels of arginine vasopressin elevated in patients with major depression" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 17 : 284 – 292 .
  • Van Praag , H.M. 1996a . "Serotonin-related, anxiety/aggression-driven, stressor-pecipitated depression. A psychobiological hypothesis" . Eur. Psychiatry , 11 : 57 – 67 .
  • Van Praag , H.M. 1996b . "Faulty cortisol/serotonin interplay. Psychopathological and biological characterisation of a new hypothetical depression subtype (SeCa depression)" . Psychiatr. Res. , 65 : 143 – 157 .
  • Van Praag , H.M. 1997 . "Demoralization and melancholy: concerning the biological interface between traumatic life experiences and depression" ” . In Depression: Neurobiological, Psychopathological and Therapeutic Advances , Edited by: Honig , A. and Van Praag , H.M. 251 – 278 . Chichester : John Wiley and Sons Ltd .
  • Van Praag , H.M. 2001 . "Anxiety/aggression-driven depression. A paradigm of functionalization and verticalization of psychiatric diagnosis" . Prog. Neuro-Psychopharm. Biol. Psychiatry , 25 : 893 – 924 .
  • Van Praag , H.M. , Asnis , G.M. , Kahn , R.S. , Brown , S.L. , Korn , M. , Harkavy Friedman , J.M. and Wetzler , S. 1990 . "Monoamines and abnormal behavior. A multi-aminergic perspective" . Br. J. Psychiatry , 157 : 723 – 734 .
  • Van Praag , H.M. , De Kloet , R. , Van Os , J. and Leonard , B. 2003 . Stress, depression and the brain: a psycho-bio-psychopathological cascade , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . In preparation
  • Vaughan , J. , Donaldson , C. , Bittencourt , J. , Perrin , M.H. , Lewis , K. , Sutton , S. , Chan , R. , Turnbull , A.V. , Lovejoy , D. , Rivier , C. , Rivier , J. , Sawchenko , P.E. and Vale , W. 1995 . "Urocortin, a mammalian neuropeptide related to fish urotensin I and to corticotropin-releasing factor" . Nature , 378 : 287 – 292 .
  • Virgin , C.E. , Ha , T.P. , Packan , D.R. , Tombaugh , G.C. , Yang , S.H. , Horner , H.C. and Sapolsky , R.M. 1991 . "Glucocorticoids inhibit glucose transport and glutamate uptake in hippocampal astrocytes: implications for glucocorticoid neurotoxicity" . J. Neurochem. , 57 : 1422 – 1428 .
  • von Bardeleben , U. and Holsboer , F. 1989 . "Cortisol response to a combined dexamethasone-hCRH challenge in patients with depression" . J. Neuroendocrinol. , 1 : 485 – 488 .
  • Watanabe , Y. , Gould , E. and McEwen , B.S. 1992 . "Stress induces atrophy of apical dendrites of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons" . Brain Res. , 588 : 341 – 345 .
  • Watanabe , L.Y. , Sakai , R.R. , McEwen , B.S. and Mendelson , S. 1993 . "Stress and antidepressant effects on hippocampal and cortical 5-HT 1a and 5-HT 2 receptors and transport sites for serotonin" . Brain Res. , 615 : 87 – 94 .
  • Webster , M.J. , O'Grady , J.O. , Orthmann , C. and Freed , W.J. 1999 . "Decreased glucocorticoid receptor mRNA levels in individuals with depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia" . Schizophr. Res. , 41 ( III )
  • Weinstock , M. , Fride , E. and Hertzberg , R. 1988 . "Prenatal stress effects on functional development of the offspring" . Prog. Brain Res. , 73 : 319 – 331 .
  • Weiss , J.M. , Goodman , P.A. , Losito , B.G. , Corrigan , S. , Charry , J.M. and Bailey , W.H. 1981 . "Behavioral depression produced by an uncontrollable stressor: relationship to norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin levels in various regions of rat brain" . Brain Res. Rev. , 3 : 167 – 205 .
  • Weiss , E.L. , Longhurst , J.G. and Mazure , C.M. 1999 . "Childhood sexual abuse as a risk factor for depression in women: psychosocial and neurobiological correlates" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 156 : 816 – 828 .
  • Whalley , L.J. , Borthwick , N. , Copolov , D. , Dick , H. , Christie , J.E. and Fink , G. 1986 . "Glucocorticoid receptors and depression" . Br. Med. J. , 292 : 859 – 861 .
  • Wissow , L.S. 1995 . "Child abuse and neglect" . N. Engl. J. Med. , 332 : 1425 – 1431 .
  • Wolkowitz , O.M. , Sutton , M.E. , Doran , A.R. , Labarca , R. , Roy , A. , Thomas , J.W. , Pickar , D. and Paul , S.M. 1985 . "Dexamethasone increases plasma HVA but not MHPG in normal humans" . Psychiatr. Res. , 16 : 101 – 109 .
  • Wolkowitz , O. , Sutton , M. , Koulu , M. , Labarca , R. , Wilkinson , L. , Doran , A. , Hauger , R. , Pickar , D. and Crawley , J. 1986 . "Chronic corticosterone administration in rats: behavioral and biochemical evidence of increased central dopaminergic activity" . Eur. J. Pharmacol. , 122 : 329 – 338 .
  • Wolkowitz , O.M. , Reus , V.I. , Weingartner , H. , Thompson , K. , Breier , A. , Doran , A. , Rubinow , D. and Pickar , D. 1990 . "Cognitive effects of corticosteroids" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 147 : 1297 – 1303 .
  • Wolkowitz , O.M. , Reus , V.I. , Roberts , E. , Manfredi , F. , Chan , T. , Raum , W.J. , Ormiston , S. , Johnson , R. , Canick , J. , Brizendine , L. and Weingartner , H. 1997 . "Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) treatment of depression" . Biol. Psychiatry , 41 : 311 – 318 .
  • Wolkowitz , O.M. , Reus , V.I. , Weingartner , H. , Thompson , K. , Breier , A. , Doran , A. , Rubinow , D. and Pickar , D. 1999a . "Treatment of depression with antiglucocorticoid drugs" . Psychosom. Med. , 61 : 698 – 711 .
  • Wolkowitz , O.M. , Reus , V.I. , Weingartner , H. , Thompson , K. , Breier , A. , Doran , A. , Rubinow , D. , Pickar , D. , Chan , T. and Knutson , B. 1999b . "Antiglucocorticoid treatment of depression: double-blind ketoconazole" . Biol. Psychiatry , 45 : 1070 – 1074 .
  • Wolkowitz , O.M. , Reus , V.I. , Keebler , B.A. , Nelson , N. , Friedland , M. , Brizendine , L. and Roberts , E. 1999c . "Double-blind treatment of major depression with dehydroepiandrosterone" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 156 : 646 – 649 .
  • Wong , M.-L. , Kling , M.A. , Munson , P.J. , Listwak , S. , Licinio , J. , Prolo , P. , Karp , B. , McCutcheon , L.E. , Geracioti , T.D. , DeBellis , M.D. , Rice , K.C. , Goldstein , D.S. , Veldhuis , J.D. , Chrousos , G.P. , Oldfield , E.H. , McCann , S.M. and Gold , P.W. 2000 . "Pronounced and sustained central hypernoradrenergic function in major depression with melancholic features: relation to hypercorticoslism and corticotropin-releasing hormone" . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA , 97 : 325 – 330 .
  • Woodman , D.D. , Hinton , J.W. and O'Neill , M.T. 1978 . "Cortisol secretion and stress in maximum security hospital patients" . J. Psychosom. Res. , 22 : 133 – 136 .
  • Woolley , C.S. , Gould , E. and McEwen , B.S. 1990 . "Exposure to excess glucocortioids alters dendritic morphology and adult hippocampal neurons" . Brain. Res. , 531 : 225 – 231 .
  • Workel , J.O. , Oitzl , M.S. , Ledeboer , A. and De Kloet , R.E. 1997 . "The brown Norway rat displays enhanced stress-induced ACTH reactivity at day 18 after 24 h maternal deprivation at day 3" . Dev. Brain Res. , 103 : 199 – 203 .
  • Xie , D.W. , Deng , Z.L. , Ishigaki , T. , Nakamura , Y. , Suzuki , Y. , Miyasato , K. , Ohara , K. and Ohara , K. 1995 . "The gene encoding the 5-HT 1a receptor is intact in mood disorders" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 12 : 263 – 268 .
  • Yama , M.F. , Tovey , S.L. and Fogas , B.S. 1993 . "Childhood family environment and sexual abuse as predictors of anxiety and depression in adult women" . Am. J. Orthopsychiatry , 63 : 136 – 141 .
  • Yamada , S. , Watanbe , A. , Nankai , M. and Toru , M. 1995 . "Acute immobilization stress reduces (±)DOI-induced 5-HT 2a receptor-mediated head shakes in rats" . Psychopharmacology , 119 : 9 – 14 .
  • Yehuda , R. 2000 . "Biology of posttraumatic stress disorder" . J. Clin. Psychiatry , 61 (Suppl. 7) : 14 – 21 .
  • Yehuda , R. , Southwick , S.M. , Nussbaum , G. , Wahby , V. , Giller , E.L. and Maso2n , J. 1990 . "Low urinary cortisol excretion in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder" . J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. , 187 : 366 – 369 .
  • Yehuda , R. , Lowy , M.T. , Southwick , S.M. , Shaffer , D. and Giller , E.L. 1991 . "Lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor number in posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 148 : 499 – 504 .
  • Yehuda , R. , Giller , E.L. and Mason , J.W. 1993a . "Psychoneuroendocrine assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder: current progress and new directions" . Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry , 17 : 541 – 550 .
  • Yehuda , R. , Southwick , S.M. , Krystal , J.H. , Bremner , D.C. and Mason , J.W. 1993b . "Enhanced suppression of cortisol following dexamethasone administration in posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 150 : 83 – 86 .
  • Yehuda , R. , Kahana , B. , Binder-Brynes , K. , Southwick , S.M. , Mason , J.W. and Giller , E.L. 1995 . "Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 152 : 982 – 986 .
  • Yehuda , R. , Teicher , M.H. , Trestman , R.L. , Levengood , R.A. and Siever , L.J. 1996 . "Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: a chronobiological analysis" . Biol. Psychiatry , 40 : 79 – 88 .
  • Yehuda , R. , McFarlane , A.C. and Shalev , A.Y. 1998 . "Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event" . Biol. Psychiatry , 44 : 1305 – 1313 .
  • Young , E.A. , Haskett , R.F. , Murphy-Weinberg , V. , Watson , S.J. and Akil , H. 1991 . "Loss of glucocorticoid fast feedback in depression" . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry , 48 : 693 – 699 .
  • Young , A.H. , Goodwin , G.M. , Dick , H. and Fink , G. 1994 . "Effects of glucocorticoids on 5-HT 1a presynaptic function in the mouse" . Psychopharmacology , 114 : 360 – 364 .
  • Young , E.A. , Lopez , J.F. , Murphy-Weinberg , V. , Watson , S.J. and Akil , H. 2000 . "Hormonal evidence for altered responsiveness to social stress in major depression" . Neuropsychopharmacology , 23 : 411 – 418 .
  • Zacharko , R.M. and Anisman , H. 1991 . "Stressor-induced anhedonia and the mesocorticolimbic system" . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. , 15 : 391 – 405 .
  • Zobel , A.W. , Yassouridis , A. , Frieboes , R.M. and Holsboer , F. 1999 . "Prediction of medium-term outcome by cortisol response to the combined dexamethasone-CRH test in patients with remitted depression" . Am. J. Psychiatry , 156 : 949 – 951 .
  • Zobel , A.W. , Nickel , T. , Kunzel , H.E. , Ackl , N. , Sonntag , A. , Ising , M. and Holsboer , F. 2000 . "Effects of the high-affinity corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 antagonist R121919 in major depression: the first 20 patients treated" . J. Psychiatr. Res. , 34 : 171 – 181 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.