Scarring effects for young people in challenging economic times: a conceptual synthesis and future policy and research agenda

References

• Acemoglu, D. 1995. “Public Policy in a Model of Long-Term Unemployment.” Economica 62 (246): 161–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2554901.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akkermans, J., J. Richardson, and M. Kraimer. 2020. “The COVID-19 Crisis as a Career Shock: Implications for Careers and Vocational Behaviour.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 119:103434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arulampalam, W. 2001. “Is Unemployment Really Scarring? Effects of Unemployment Persistence on Wages.” The Economic Journal 111 (475): F585–F606. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00664.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson, J., L. Giles, and N. Meager. 1996. Employers, Recruitment and the Unemployed. Brighton, United Kingdom: Institute for Employment Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Baert, S., B. Cockx, and D. Verhaest. 2013. “Overeducation at the Start of the Career: Stepping Stone or Trap?” Labour Economics 25:123–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2013.04.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baert, S., and D. Verhaest. 2019. “Unemployment or Overeducation: Which is a Worse Signal to Employers?” De Economist 167 (1): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10645-018-9330-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barone, C., and L. Ortiz. 2011. “Overeducation Among European University Graduates: A Comparative Analysis of Its Incidence and the Importance of Higher Education Differentiation.” Higher Education 61 (3): 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-010-9380-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, P., S. Das, G. Magistretti, E. Pugacheva, and P. Wingender. 2023. “Long COVID? Prospects for Economic Scarring from the Pandemic.” Contemporary Economic Policy 41 (2): 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/coep.12598.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bathmaker, A. M., N. Ingram, J. Abrahams, R. Waller, R. Waller, and H. Bradley. 2016. Higher Education, Social Class and Social Mobility: The Degree Generation. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53481-1.
   Google Scholar
• Bayerlein, L., M. T. Hora, B. A. Dean, and S. Perkiss. 2021. “Developing Skills in Higher Education for Post-Pandemic Work.” Labour and Industry 31 (4): 418–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/10301763.2021.1966292.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, G. 1964. Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with a Special Reference to Education. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, G. 1993. “The Economic Way of Looking at Behaviour.” Journal of Political Economy 101 (3): 101 pp. 385–409. https://doi.org/10.1086/261880.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackmore, P., Z. Bulaitis, A. Jackman, and E. Tan. 2016. Employability in Higher Education: A Review of Practice and Strategies Across the World. London: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Boliver, V. 2013. “How Fair is Access to More Prestigious UK Universities?” The British Journal of Sociology 64 (2): 344–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boll, C., J. Leppin, A. Rossen, and A. Wolf. 2016. “Overeducation - New Evidence for 25 European Countries.” IAB Discussion Paper 35/2016, Nuremberg: The Institute for Employment Research.
   Google Scholar
• Brand, J. E. 2015. “The far-reaching impact of job loss and unemployment.” Annual review of sociology 41: 359–375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, M., N. Cominetti, K. Henehan, C. McCurdy, R. Sehmi, and H. Slaughter. 2020. Jobs, Jobs, Jobs Evaluating the Effects of the Current Economic Crisis on the UK Labour Market. London: Resolution Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Capsada-Munsech, Q. 2020. “Overeducation, Skills and Social Background: The Influence of Parental Education on Overeducation in Spain.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative & International Education 50 (2): 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2019.1579085.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, T. 2015. Hard Times: Inequality, Recession, Aftermath. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cockx, B., and M. Picchio. 2013. “Scarring Effects of Remaining Unemployed for Long-Term Unemployed School-Leavers.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 176 (4): 951–980. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-985X.2012.01086.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covizzi, I. 2008. “Does Union Dissolution Lead to Unemployment? A Longitudinal Study of Health and Risk of Unemployment for Women and Men Undergoing Separation.” ” European Sociological Review 24 (3): 347–361. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcn006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daly, M., and L. Delaney. 2013. “The Scarring Effect of Unemployment Throughout Adulthood on Psychological Distress at Age 50: Estimates Controlling for Early Adulthood Distress and Childhood Psychological Factors.” Social Science & Medicine 80 (1): 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.12.008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dieckhoff, M. 2011. “The Effect of Unemployment on Subsequent Job Quality in Europe. A Comparative Study of Four Countries.” Acta Sociologica 54 (3): 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699311412798.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiPrete, T. A., and G. M. Eirich. 2006. “Cumulative Advantage as a Mechanism for Inequality: A Review of Theoretical and Empirical Developments.” Annual Review of Sociology 32 (1): 271–297. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdogan, B., and T. Bauer. 2020. “Over-Qualification at Work: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology & Organizational Behavior 8 (1): 259–283. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055831.
   Google Scholar
• Erdsiek, D. 2016. “Overqualification of Graduates: Assessing the Role of Family Background.” Journal for Labour Market Research 49 (3): 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12651-016-0208-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdsiek, D. 2021. “Dynamics of Overqualification: Evidence from the Early Career of Graduates.” Education Economics 29 (3): 312–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2021.1882391.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsythe, E., L. B. Kahn, F. Lange, and D. G. Wiczer. 2022. “Where Have All the Workers Gone? Recalls, Retirements, and Reallocation in the COVID Recovery.” Labour Economics 78:102251. Available at. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102251.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, S. A. I., and D. Laurison. 2019. The Class Ceiling: Why It Pays to Be Privileged. Bristol, United Kingdom: Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.46692/9781447336075.
   Google Scholar
• Gallie, D., S. Jacobs, and S. Paugam. 2000. “Poverty and Financial Hardship Among the Unemployed.” In Welfare Regimes and the Experience of Unemployment in Europe, edited by D. Gallie and S. Paugam, 47–68. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gangl, M. 2006. ““Scar Effects of Unemployment: An Assessment of Institutional Complementarities.” American Sociological Review 71 (6): 986–1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240607100606.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavin, M., M. Poorhosseinzadeh, and J. Arrowsmith. 2022. “The Transformation of Work and Employment Relations: COVID-19 and Beyond.” Labour and Industry 32 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/10301763.2022.2038353.
   Google Scholar
• Gorman, E. 2005. “Gender Stereotypes, Same-Gender Preferences, and Organizational Variation in the Hiring of Women: Evidence from Law Firms.” American Sociological Review 70 (4): 702–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, F., and Y. Zhu. 2010. “Overqualification, job dissatisfaction and increasing dispersion in the returns to graduate education.” Oxford economic papers 62 (4): 740–763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg, P. 2001. “The Impact of Youth Unemployment on Adult Unemployment in the NCDS.” The Economic Journal 111 (475): 626–653. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00666.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory, M., and R. Jukes. 2001. “Unemployment and Subsequent Earnings: Estimating Scarring Among British Men 1984–94.” The Economic Journal 111 (475): F607–F625. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00665.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, H. T. 2005. “Unemployment and Marital Disruption: A Panel Data Study of Norway.” European Sociological Review 21 (2): 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jci009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J., and G. J. Borjas. 1980. “Does Unemployment Cause Future Unemployment? Definitions, Questions and Answers from a Continuous Time Model of Heterogeneity and State Dependence.” Economica 47 (187): 467 pp. 247–283. https://doi.org/10.2307/2553150.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyes, J., M. Tomlinson, and J. Whitworth. 2017. “Underemployment and Wellbeing in the UK Before and After the Recession.” Work, Employment and Society 31 (1): 71–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017016666199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, L. 2015. “Becoming a Graduate: The Warranting of an Emerging Identity.” ” Education + Training 57 (2): 219–238. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-08-2013-0100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hora, M. T. 2020. “Hiring as Cultural Gatekeeping into Occupational Communities: Implications for Higher Education and Student Employability.” Higher Education 79 (2): 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00411-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt, W., and P. Scott. 2020. “Paid and Unpaid Graduate Internships: Prevalence, Quality and Motivations at Six Months After Graduation.” Studies in Higher Education 45 (2): 464–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1541450.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janlert, U., A. H. Winefield, and A. Hammarström. 2015. “Length of Unemployment and Health-Related Outcomes: A Life-Course Analysis.” The European Journal of Public Health 25 (4): 662–667. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cku186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konle-Seidl, R., and F. Picarella. 2021. Youth in Europe: Effects of COVID-19 on Their Economic and Social Situation. Luxembourg: Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies, European Parliament.
   Google Scholar
• Kornrich, S. 2009. “Combining Preferences and Processes: An Integrated Approach to Black-White Labor Market Inequality.” American Journal of Sociology 115 (1): 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1086/597792.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpi, T., and M. Tåhlin. 2009. “Educational Mismatch, Wages, and Wage Growth: Overeducation in Sweden, 1974-2000.” Labour Economics 16 (2): 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2008.08.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lange, T. 2013. “Scarred from the past or afraid of the future? Unemployment and job satisfaction across European labour markets.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 24 (6): 1096–1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.706819.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lene, A. 2011. “Occupational Downgrading and Bumping Down: The Combined Effects of Education and Experience.” Labour Economics 18 (2): 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2010.11.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ljungqvist, L., and T. J. Sargent. 1998. “The European Unemployment Dilemma.” Journal of Political Economy 106 (3): 514–550. https://doi.org/10.1086/250020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockwood, B. 1991. “Information Externalities in the Labor Market and the Duration of Unemployment.” Review of Economic Studies 58 (4): 733–753. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297830.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald, R., H. King, E. Murphy, and W. Gill. 2023. “The Covid Pandemic and Youth in Recent, Historic Perspective: More Pressure, More Precarity.” Journal of Youth Studies 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2163884.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann, A., P. Huddleston, and E. Kashefpakdel. 2019. Essays on Employer Engagement in Education. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315144115.
   Google Scholar
• McDonald, S., A. K. Damarin, H. McQueen, and S. T. Grether. 2022. “The Hunt for Red Flags: Cybervetting as Morally Performative Practice.” Socio-Economic Review 20 (3): 915–936. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwab002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQuaid, R. 2015. The Multiple Scarring Effects of Youth Unemployment. Edinburgh: Skills Development Scotland/Scottish Funding Council.
   Google Scholar
• Merrill, B., F. Finnegan, J. O’Neill, and S. Revers. 2020. “‘When It Comes to What Employers are Looking For, I Don’t Think I’m It for a Lot of them’: Class and Capitals In, and After, Higher Education.” Studies in Higher Education 45 (1): 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1570492.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mincer, J., and S. Polachek. 1974. “Family Investment in Human Capital: Earnings of a Woman.” Journal of Political Economy 82 (2, Part 2): S76–S108. https://doi.org/10.1086/260293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narendranathan, W., and P. Elias. 1993. “Influences of Past History on the Incidence of Youth Unemployment: Empirical Findings for the UK.” Oxford bulletin of economics and statistics 55 (2): 161–186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordström Skans, O. 2011, “Scarring Effects of the First Labor Market Experience.” IZA Discussion Paper 5565. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
   Google Scholar
• Nunley, J. M., A. Pugh, N. Romero, and R. A. Seals. 2016. “The Effects of Unemployment and Underemployment on Employment Opportunities: Results from a Correspondence Audit of the Labor Market for College Graduates.” ILR Review 70 (3): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793916654686.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberholzer-Gee, F. 2008. “Nonemployment Stigma as Rational Herding: A Field Experimen.T.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 65 (1): 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2004.05.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics. 2019. Overeducation and Hourly Wages in the UK Labour Market; 2006 to 2017. Bristol, United Kingdom: ONS.
   Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics. 2021. Graduates’ Labour Market Outcomes During the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Occupational Switches and Skill Mismatch. Bristol, United Kingdom: ONS.
   Google Scholar
• O’Higgins, N. 2012. “This Time It’s Different? Youth Labour Markets During the Great Recession.” Comparative Economic Studies 52 (2): 395–412. https://doi.org/10.1057/ces.2012.15.
   Google Scholar
• Ordine, P., and G. Rose. 2015. “Educational Mismatch and Unemployment Scarring.” International Journal of Manpower 36 (5): 733–753. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-03-2013-0048.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Reilly, J., W. Eichhorst, A. Gábos, K. Hadjivassiliou, D. Lain, J. Leschke, S. McGuinness, et al. 2015. “Five Characteristics of Youth Unemployment in Europe: Flexibility, Education, Migration, Family Legacies, and EU Policy.” SAGE Open 5 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015574962.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orton, M., A. E. Green, G. Atfield, and S. A. Barnes. 2019. “Employer Participation in Active Labour Market Policy: From Reactive Gatekeepers to Proactive Strategic Partners.” Journal of Social Policy 48 (3): 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279418000600.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedulla, D. S. 2016. “Penalized or Protected? Gender and the Consequences of Non-Standard and Mismatched Employment Histories.” American Sociological Review 81 (2): 262–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416630982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedulla, D. S. 2020. Making the Cut Hiring Decisions, Bias, and the Consequences of Nonstandard, Mismatched, and Precarious Employment. Princeton, United States: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Perri, T. J. 1994. “Testing for Ability When Job Assignment is a Signal.” Labour Economics 1 (3–4): 365–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/0927-5371(94)90018-3.
   Google Scholar
• Pissarides, C. A. 1992. “Loss of Skill During Unemployment and the Persistence of Employment Shocks.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 107 (4): 107 pp. 1371–1391. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell, A., B. Francis-Devine, and N. Foley. 2020. Coronavirus: Impact on the Labour Market. London: House of Commons Library.
   Google Scholar
• Ray-Chaudhuri, S., and X. Xu 2023. Are the Kids Alright? The Early Careers of Education Leavers Since the COVID-19 Pandemic. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies. Accessed April 17, 2023. https://ifs.org.uk/publications/are-kids-alright-early-careers-education-leavers-covid-19-pandemic
   Google Scholar
• Rivera, L. A. 2012. “Hiring as Cultural Matching: The Case of Elite Professional Service Firms.” American Sociological Review 77 (6): 999–1022. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412463213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera, L. A. 2015. “Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs.“ Princeton, United States: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rothstein, J. 2020. “The Lost Generation? Labor Market Outcomes for Post Great Recession Entrants.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series No. 27516, https://www.nber.org/papers/w27516
   Google Scholar
• Sage, D. 2018. “Reversing the Negative Experience of Unemployment: A Mediating Role for Social Policies?” Social Policy and Administration 52 (5): 1043–1059. https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12333.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schröder, M. 2013. “Jobless Now, Sick Later? Investigating the Long-Term Consequences of Involuntary Job Loss on Health.” Advances in Life Course Research 18 (1): 18 pp. 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2012.08.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, P., B. Lopes, M. Costa, A. I. Melo, G. P. Dias, E. Brito, and D. Seabra. 2018. “The million-dollar question: can internships boost employment?” Studies in Higher Education 43 (1): 2–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2016.1144181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SMCPC (Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission). 2019. State of the Nation 2018-19: Social Mobility in Great Britain. London: HMSO.
   Google Scholar
• Spence, M. 1974. Market Signaling-Informational Transfer in Hiring and Related Processes. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stiglitz, J. E. 1975. “The Theory of “Screening,” Education, and the Distribution of Income.” American Economic Review 65 (3): 283–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiglitz, J. E. 2002. “Information and the Change in the Paradigm in Economics.” American Economic Review 92 (3): 460–501. https://doi.org/10.1257/00028280260136363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton, T. 2019. Elitist Britain: The Educational Backgrounds of Britain’s Leading People. London: Sutton Trust.
   Google Scholar
• Tholen, G. 2014. The Changing Nature of the Graduate Labour Market: Media, Policy and Political Discourses in the UK. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
   Google Scholar
• Thurow, L. 1975. Generating Inequality. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Tomlinson, M. 2017. “Forms of graduate capital and their relationship to graduate employability.” Education + Training 59 (4): 338–352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomlinson, M., F. Reedy, and D. Burg. 2023. “Graduating in uncertain times.” Higher Education Quarterly 77 (3): 486–500.
   Google Scholar
• Van Belle, E., V. Di Stasio, R. Caers, M. De Couck, and S. Baert. 2018. “Why are Employers Put off by Long Spells of Unemployment?” European Sociological Review 34 (6): 694–710. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcy039.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, J., and M. Favri. 2021. “The Ecosystem of Competitive Employment for Graduates with Autism.” International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 69 (5): 1823–1839. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2020.1821874.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, T., and D. Papoutsaki. 2021. An Unequal Crisis: The Impact of the Pandemic on the Youth Labour Market. Brighton, United Kingdom: Institute for Employment Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Wolbers, M. 2003. “Job Mismatches and Their Labour Market Effects Among School Leavers in Europe.” European Sociological Review 19 (3): 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/19.3.249.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf, A. 2015. Fixing a Broken Training System: The Case for an Apprenticeship Levy. London: Social Market Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Woodson, K. 2015. “Race and Rapport: Homophily and Racial Disadvantage in Large Law Firms.” Fordham Law Review 83 (5): 2557–2576.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, E., and B. Mulvey. 2021. “Internships and the Graduate Labour Market: How Upper-Middle-Class Students ‘Get ahead’.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 42 (3): 339–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2021.1886051.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wulfgramm, M. 2014. “Life Satisfaction Effects of Unemployment in Europe: The Moderating Influence of Labour Market Policy.” Journal of European Social Policy 24 (3): 258–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928714525817.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, C. 2012. “Losing a Job: The Nonpecuniary Cost of Unemployment in the United States.” Social Forces 91 (2): 609–634. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sos071.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar