Questioning Psychological Constructs: Current Issues and Proposed Changes

References

• AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.
   Google Scholar
• Asendorpf, J. B., Conner, M., De Fruyt, F., De Houwer, J., Denissen, J. J. A., Fiedler, K., Fiedler, S., Funder, D. C., Kliegl, R., Nosek, B. A., Perugini, M., Roberts, B. W., Schmitt, M., Van Aken, M. A. G., Weber, H., & Wicherts, J. M. (2013). Recommendations for increasing replicability in psychology. European Journal of Personality, 27(2), 108–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1919
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014). Multiple-group factor analysis alignment. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(4), 495–508. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.919210
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bardini, G., Politano, G., Benso, A., & Di Carlo, S. (2017). Multi-level and hybrid modelling approaches for systems biology. Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal, 15, 396–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csbj.2017.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baribault, B., Donkin, C., Little, D. R., Trueblood, J. S., Oravecz, Z., van Ravenzwaaij, D., White, C. N., De Boeck, P., & Vandekerckhove, J. (2018). Meta-studies for robust tests of theory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(11), 2607–2612. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1708285114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, L. F. (2017a). The theory of constructed emotion: An active inference account of interoception and categorization. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, L. F. (2017b). How emotions are made: The secret life the brain. Houghton-Mifflin-Harcourt.
   Google Scholar
• Barry, A. E., Chaney, B., Piazza-Gardner, A. K., & Chavarria, E. A. (2014). Validity and reliability reporting practices in the field of health education and behavior: A review of seven journals. Health Education & Behavior, 41(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198113483139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauchaine, T. P., Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2005). Mediators, moderators, and predictors of one-year outcomes among children treated for early-onset conduct problems: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 371–388. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauchaine, T. P., Zisner, A., & Sauder, C. L. (2017). Trait impulsivity and the externalizing spectrum. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13(1), 343–368. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock, H. M. (Ed.). (1971). Causal models in the social sciences. Aldine.
   Google Scholar
• Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Borsboom, D. (2005). Measuring the mind. Conceptual issues in contemporary psychometrics. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Borsboom, D. (2017). A network theory of mental disorders. World Psychiatry, 16(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borsboom, D., Deserno, M. K., Rhemtulla, M., Epskamp, S., Fried, E. I., McNally, R. J., Robinaugh, D. J., Perugini, M., Dalege, J., Constantini, G., Isvoranu, A.-M., Wysocki, A. C., van Borkulo, C. D., van Bork, R., & Waldorp, L. (2021). Network analysis of multivariate data in psychological science. Nature Review Methods Primers, 1, 58. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-021-00055-w
   Google Scholar
• Boschloo, L., van Borkulo, C. D., Borsboom, D., & Schoevers, R. A. (2016). A prospective study on how symptoms in a network predict the onset of depression. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85(3), 183–184. https://doi.org/10.1159/000442001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridgman, P. W. (1927). The logic of modern physics. Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, S. D., & Heathcote, A. (2008). The simplest complete model of choice response time: Linear ballistic accumulation. Cognitive Psychology, 57(3), 153–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2007.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bukumiric, Z., Starcevic, V., Stanisavljevic, D., Marinkovic, J., Milic, N., Djukic-Dejanovic, S., Janjic, V., Corac, A., Ilic, A., Kostic, M., Nikolic, I., & Trajkovic, G. (2016). Meta-analysis of the changes in correlations between depression instruments used in longitudinal studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 733–743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.10.054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns, L., Preszler, J., Ahnach, A., Servera, M., & Becker, S. (2022). Multisource network and latent variable models of sluggish cognitive tempo, ADHD‐inattentive, and depressive symptoms with Spanish children: Equivalent findings and recommendations. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 50(7), 881–894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00890-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Busemeyer, J. R., & Townsend, J. T. (1993). Decision field theory: A dynamic-cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment. Psychological Review, 100(3), 432–459. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss, D. M., & Craik, K. H. (1983). The act frequency approach to personality. Psychological Review, 90(2), 105–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.90.2.105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright, N., & Bradburn, N. (2011). A theory of measurement. In R. M. Li (Ed.), The importance of common metrics for advancing social science theory and research: A workshop summary (pp. 53–56). National Academies. https://ection www.dur.ac.uk/chess/chessworkingpapers/
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright, N., & Runhardt, R. (2014). Measurement. In N. Cartwright & E. Montuschi (Eds.), Philosophy of social science: A new introduction (pp. 265–287). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chambon, M., Dalege, J., Elberse, J. E., & van Harreveld, F. (2022). A psychological network approach to attitudes and preventive behaviors during pandemics: A COVID-19 study in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(1), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211002420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, H. (2021). Operationalism. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/operationalism
   Google Scholar
• Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (2019). Constructing validity: New developments in creating objective measuring instruments. Psychological Assessment, 31(12), 1412–1427. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, D. D. (1987). Fundamental problems with fundamental research: A meta-theory for social psychology. Philosophica, 40(0), 23–61. https://doi.org/10.21825/philosophica.82482
   Google Scholar
• Crandall, C. S., & Sherman, J. W. (2016). On the scientific superiority of conceptual replications for scientific progress. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 66, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crites, S., Fabrigar, L., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Measuring the affective and cognitive properties of attitudes: Conceptual and methodological issues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(6), 619–634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294206001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Harcourt Brace Javanovich.
   Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. J. (1982). In praise of uncertainty. New Directions for Program Evaluation, 1982(15), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.1310
   Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040957
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. J., Rajaratnam, N., & Gleser, G. C. (1963). Theory of generalizability: A liberalization of reliability theory. British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 16(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.2044-8317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins, R. (2010). The world in the head. Oxford Scholarship Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199548033.001.0001
   Google Scholar
• Cureton, E. E. (1951). Validity. In E. F. Lindquist (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp. 621–694). American Council on Education.
   Google Scholar
• Dalege, J., Borsboom, D., van Harreveld, F., van den Berg, H., Conner, M., & van der Maas, H. L. (2016). Toward a formalized account of attitudes: The casual attitude network (CAN) model. Psychological Review, 123(1), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Boeck, P., & Jeon, M. (2018). Perceived crisis and reforms: Issues, explanations, and remedies. Psychological Bulletin, 144(7), 757–777. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeKay, M., Rubinchik, N., Li, Z., & De Boeck, P. (2022). Accelerating psychological science with metastudies: A demonstration using the risky-choice framing effect. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(6), 1704–1736. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221079611
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doob, L. W. (1947). The behavior of attitudes. Psychological Review, 54(3), 135–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0058371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, J. R. (2011). The fallacy of formative models. Organizational Research Methods, 14(2), 370–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428110378369
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, J. R., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000). On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures. Psychological Methods, 5(2), 155–174. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.5.2.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, S. (1983). Aggregation and beyond: Some basic issues on the prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality, 51(3), 360–392. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, N. J., Holmes, W. S., & Trueblood, J. S. (2019). Response-time data provide critical constraints on dynamic models of multi-alternative, multi-attribute choice. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26(3), 901–933. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-018-1557-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabrigar, L. R., & Wegener, D. T. (2016). Conceptualizing and evaluating the replication of research results. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 66, 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.07.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (2020). A validity-based framework for understanding replication in psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 24(4), 316–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868320931366
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1013–1027. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feest, U. (2005). Operationism in psychology: What the debate is about, what the debate should be about. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 41(2), 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.20079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigl, H. (1950). Existential hypotheses. Realistic versus phenomenalistic interpretations. Philosophy of Science, 17(1), 35–62. https://doi.org/10.1086/287065
   Google Scholar
• Flake, J. (2021). Strengthening the foundation of educational psychology by integrating construct validation into open science reform. Educational Psychologist, 56(2), 132–141. https://doi.org/10.10.1080/00461520.2021.1898962
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flake, J., & Fried, E. I. (2020). Measurement schmeasurement: Questionable measurement practices and how to avoid them. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 3(4), 456–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245920952393
   Google Scholar
• Flake, J. K., Pek, J., & Hehman, A. (2017). Construct validation in social and personality research: Current practice and recommendations. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(4), 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617693063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried, E. I. (2017a). The 52 symptoms of major depression: Lack of content overlap among seven common depression scales. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.10.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried, E. I. (2017b). What are psychological constructs? On the nature and statistical modelling of emotions, intelligence, personality traits and mental disorders. Health Psychology Review, 11(2), 130–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2017.1306718
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried, E. I. (2020). Theories and models: What they are, what they are for, and what they are about. Psychological Inquiry, 31(4), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2020.1854011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried, E. I., & Flake, J. K. (2018). Measurement matters. APS Observer, 31(3), 29–31.
   Google Scholar
• Fried, E. I., van Borkulo, C. D., Epskamp, S., Schoevers, R. A., Tuerlinckx, F., & Borsboom, D. (2016). Measuring depression over time … Or not? Lack of unidimensionality and longitudinal measurement invariance in four common rating scales of depression. Psychological Assessment, 28(11), 1354–1367. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funder, D. C., Levine, J. M., Mackie, D. M., Morf, C. C., Sansone, C., Vazire, S., & West, S. G. (2014). Improving the dependability of research in personality and social psychology: Recommendations for research and educational practice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313507536
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A., & Lai, C. (2020). Implicit social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 71(1), 419–445. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6 ), 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, C. T., & Canteras, N. S. (2012). The many paths to fear. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 13(9), 651–658. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstee, W. K., de Raad, B., & Goldberg, L. R. (1992). Integration of the Big Five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(1), 146–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
   Google Scholar
• Huys, Q. J. M., Maia, T. V., & Frank, M. J. (2016). Computational psychiatry as a bridge from neuroscience to clinical applications. Nature Neuroscience, 19(3), 404–413. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, R. A., Ratliff, K. A., Vianello, M., Adams, R. B., Jr., Bahník, Š., Bernstein, M. J., Bocian, K., Brandt, M. J., Brooks, B., Brumbaugh, C. C., Cemalcilar, Z., Chandler, J., Cheong, W., Davis, W. E., Devos, T., Eisner, M., Frankowska, N., Furrow, D., Galliani, E. M., Hasselman, F., Hicks, J. A., … Nosek, B. A. (2014). Investigating variation in replicability. A “Many Labs” replication project. Social Psychology, 45(3), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000178
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch, S. (1992). Psychology’s Bridgman and Bridgman’s Bridgman. An essay in reconstruction. Theory & Psychology, 2(3), 261–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354392023002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krajbich, I., & Rangel, A. (2011). Multialternative drift-diffusion model predicts the relationship between visual fixations and choice in value-based choice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(33), 13852–13857. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1101328108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kretzschmar, A., & Nebe, S. (2021). Working memory, fluid reasoning, and complex problem solving: Different results explained by the Brunswick symmetry. Journal of Intelligence, 9(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9010005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Land, K. C. (1970). On the estimation of path coefficients for unmeasured variables from correlations among observed variables. Social Forces, 48(4), 506–511. https://doi.org/10.2307/2575575
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landry, O., & Chouinard, P. A. (2016). Why we should study the broader autism phenotype in typically developing populations. Journal of Cognition and Development, 17(4), 584–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2016.1200046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, M. D., Criss, A. H., Devezer, B., Donkin, C., Etz, A., Leite, F. P., Matzke, D., Rouder, J. N., Trueblood, J. S., White, C. N., & Vandekerckhove, J. (2019). Robust modeling in cognitive science. Computational Brain & Behavior, 2(3–4), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42113-019-00029-y
   Google Scholar
• Leitgöb, H., Seddig, D., Asparouhov, T., Behr, D., Davidov, E., De Roover, K., Jak, S., Meitinger, K., Menold, N., Muthén, B., Rudnev, M., Schmidt, P., & van de Schoot, R. (2023). Measurement invariance in the social sciences: Historical development, methodological challenges, state of the art, and future perspectives. Social Science Research, 110, 102805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2022.102805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerche, V., & Voss, A. (2017). Retest reliability of the parameters of the Ratcliff diffusion model. Psychological Research, 81(3), 629–652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-016-0770-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerche, V., von Krause, M., Voss, A., Frischkorn, G. T., Schubert, A.-L., & Hagemann, D. (2020). Diffusion modeling and intelligence: Drift rates show both domain-general and domain-specific relations with intelligence. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 149(12), 2207–2249. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewin, K. (1942). Field theory and learning. In N. B. Henry (Ed.), The forty-first yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Part 2, The psychology of learning (pp. 215–242). University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/11335-006
   Google Scholar
• Lewin, K. (1943). Defining the 'field at a given time'. Psychological Review, 50(3), 292–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0062738
   Google Scholar
• Lilienfeld, S. O., & Strother, A. N. (2020). Psychological measurement and the replication crisis: Four sacred cows. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 61(4), 281–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lissitz, R. W., & Samuelsen, K. (2007). A suggested change in terminology and emphasis regarding validity and education. Educational Researcher, 36(8), 437–448. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07311286
   Google Scholar
• Loevinger, J. (1957). Objective tests as instruments of psychological theory. Psychological Reports, 3(7), 635–694. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.3.7.635-694
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lord, C., Charman, T., Havdahl, A., Carbone, P., Anagnostou, E., Boyd, B., Carr, T., de Vries, P. J., Dissanayake, C., Divan, G., Freitag, C. M., Gotelli, M. M., Kasari, C., Knapp, M., Mundy, P., Plank, A., Scahill, L., Servili, C., Shattuck, P., … McCauley, J. B. (2022). The Lancet Commission on the future of care and clinical research in autism. Lancet, 399(10321), 271–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01541-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacCorquodale, K., & Meehl, P. E. (1948). On a distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. Psychological Review, 55(2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0056029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machery, E. (2020). What is a replication? Philosophy of Science, 87(4), 545–567. https://doi.org/10.1086/709701
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machery, E. (2021). A mistaken confidence in data. European Journal for Philosophy of Science, 11(2), 34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-021-00354-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKenzie, S. B. (2003). The dangers of poor construct conceptualization. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 31(3), 323–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070303031003011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandelbrot, B. (1983). The fractal geometry of nature. Freeman. https://doi.org/10.2307/2323761
   Google Scholar
• Mari, L., Wilson, M., & Maul, A. (2019). Measurement across the sciences. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65558-7
   Google Scholar
• McPhetres, J., Albayrak-Aydemir, N., Barbosa Mendes, A., Chow, E. C., Gonzalez-Marquez, P., Loukras, E., Maus, A., O'Mahony, A., Pomareda, C., Primbs, M. A., Sackman, S. L., Smithson, C. J. R., & Volodko, K. (2021). A decade of theory as reflected in Psychological Science (2009– 2019). PloS One, 16(3), e0247986. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McShane, B., Tackett, J., Böckenholt, U., & Gelman, A. (2019). Large-scale replication projects in contemporary psychological research. The American Statistician, 73(sup1), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.2018.1505655
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merkle, E. C., & Van Zandt, T. (2006). An application of the Poisson race model to confidence calibration. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 135(3), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.135.3.391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milkman, K. L., Patel, M. S., Gandhi, L., Graci, H. N., Gromet, D. M., Ho, H., Kay, J. S., Lee, T. W., Akinola, M., Beshears, J., Bogard, J. E., Buttenheim, A., Chabris, C. F., Chapman, G. B., Choi, J. J., Dai, H., Fox, C. R., Goren, A., Hilchey, M. D., … Duckworth, A. L. (2021). A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(20), e2101165118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101165118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, A. H., & Raison, C. (2016). The role of inflammation in depression: From evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nature Reviews. Immunology, 16(1), 22–34. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri.2015.5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Mõttus, R., Kandler, C., Bleidorn, W., Riemann, R., & McCrae, R. R. (2017). Personality traits below facets: The consensual validity, longitudinal stability, heritability, and utility of personality nuances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(3), 474–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2012). Bayesian structural equation modeling: A more flexible representation of substantive theory. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosofsky, R. M., & Palmeri, T. J. (1997). An exemplar-based random walk model of speeded classification. Psychological Review, 104(2), 266–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.104.2.266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• O'Connor, T. G., Deater-Deckard, K., Fulker, D., Rutter, M., & Plomin, R. (1998). Genotype–environment correlations in late childhood and early adolescence: Antisocial behavioral problems and coercive parenting. Developmental Psychology, 34(5), 970–981. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Hagan, T. (2004). Dicing with the unknown. Significance, 1(3), 132–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2004.00050.x
   Google Scholar
• Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne, J. W., & Fitzpatrick, D. C. (2012). Replication analysis in exploratory factor analysis: What it is and why it makes your analysis better. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 17, 15. https://doi.org/10.7275/h0bd-4d11
   Google Scholar
• Pashler, H., & Harris, C. R. (2012). Is the replicability crisis overblown? Three arguments examined. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 531–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612463401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. The American Psychologist, 41(4), 432–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.4.432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paunonen, S. V., & Ashton, M. C. (2001). Big Five factors and facets and the prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(3), 524–539. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.3.524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pek, J., & Park, J. (2019). Complexities in power analysis: Quantifying uncertainties with a Bayesian-classical hybrid approach. Psychological Methods, 24(5), 590–605. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pek, J., Pitt, M., & Wegener, D. (2022). Uncertainty limits the use of power analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology General. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001273
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E. (2018). The importance of exact conceptual replications. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 41, e146. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X18000821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. Wm. C. Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1998). Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 323–390). McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Proshansky, J. A. (1943). A projective method for the study of attitudes. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38(3), 393–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0056930
   Google Scholar
• Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review, 85(2), 59–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.85.2.59
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rips, L. J., & Conrad, F. G. (1989). Folk psychology of mental activities. Psychological Review, 96(2), 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robitzsch, A., & Lüdtke, O. (2022). Why measurement invariance is not necessary for valid group comparisons. PsyArXiv, https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cjyqp
   Google Scholar
• Schmittmann, V. D., Cramer, A. O. J., Waldorp, L. J., Epskamp, S., Kievit, R. A., & Borsboom, D. (2013). Deconstructing the construct: A network perspective on psychological phenomena. New Ideas in Psychology, 31(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.02.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton-Mifflin.
   Google Scholar
• Simons, D. J. (2014). The value of direct replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(1), 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613514755
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, D. J., Shoda, Y., & Lindsay, D. S. (2017). Constraints on generality (COG): A proposed addition to all empirical papers. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(6), 1123–1128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708630
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, A., Lutz, A., Escher, J., & Halladay, A. (2023). A full semantic toolbox is essential for autism research and practice to thrive. Autism Research: official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 16(3), 497–501. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2876
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slaney, K. L. (2017). Validating psychological constructs: Historical, philosophical, and practical dimensions. Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Slaney, K. L., & Garcia, D. A. (2015). Constructing psychological objects: The rhetoric of constructs. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 35(4), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/teo0000025
   Google Scholar
• Smith, G. T. (2005). On construct validity: Issues of method and measurement. Psychological Assessment, 17(4), 396–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.17.4.396
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, T. D., Carter, E. C., & Doucouliagos, H. (2018). What meta-analyses reveal about the replicability of psychological research. Psychological Bulletin, 144(12), 1325–1346. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternberg, D., & Detterman, R. (Eds.), (1986). What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Ablex.
   Google Scholar
• Stevens, S. S. (1935). Kret operational definition of psychological concepts. Psychological Review, 42(6), 517–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0056973
   Google Scholar
• Stroebe, W., & Strack, F. (2014). The alleged crisis and the illusion of exact replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613514450
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sucksmith, E., Roth, I., & Hoekstra, R. (2011). Autistic traits below the clinical threshold: Re-examining the broader autism phenotype in the 21st century. Neuropsychology Review, 21(4), 360–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-011-9183-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sudol, K., & Mann, J. J. (2017). Biomarkers of suicide attempt behavior: Towards a biological model of risk. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(6), 31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0781-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tal, E. (2020). Measurement in science. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/measurement-science/
   Google Scholar
• Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. Appleton-Century.
   Google Scholar
• Tolman, E. C. (1936). An operational analysis of “demands”. Erkenntnis, 6, 383–392. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20011843
   Google Scholar
• Tolman, E. C. (1938). The determiners of behavior at a choice point. Psychological Review, 45(1), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0062733
   Google Scholar
• Usher, M., & McClelland, J. L. (2001). The time course of perceptual choice: The leaky, competing accumulator model. Psychological Review, 108(3), 550–592. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.108.3.550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VanderWeele, T. J. (2022). Constructed measures and causal inference: Towards a new model of measurement for psychosocial constructs. Epidemiology, 33(1), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000001434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace, L. E., Patton, K. M., Luttrell, A., Sawicki, V., Fabrigar, L. R., Teeny, J., MacDonald, T. K., Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (2020). Perceived knowledge moderates the relation between subjective ambivalence and the "impact" of attitudes: An attitude strength perspective. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(5), 709–722. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219873492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegener, D. T., & Fabrigar, L. R. (2004). Constructing and evaluating quantitative measures for social psychological research. Conceptual challenges and methodological solutions. In C. Sansone, C.C. Morf, & A.T. Panter (Eds.), The Sage handbook of methods in social psychology (pp. 145–172). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Wittmann, W. W. (1988). Multivariate reliability theory. Principles of symmetry and successful validation strategies. In J. R. Nesselroade & R. B. Cattell (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (pp. 505–560). Plenum Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, H., & Browne, M. W. (2015). Quantifying adventitious error in a covariance structure as a random effect. Psychometrika, 80(3), 571–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-015-9451-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zmigrod, L., Eisenberg, I. W., Bissett, P. G., Robbins, T. W., & Poldrack, R. A. (2021). The cognitive and perceptual correlates of ideological attitudes: A data-driven approach. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 376(1822), 20200424. Article 20200424. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zwaan, R. A., Etz, A., Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2018). Making replication mainstream. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 41, e120. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X17001972
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar