Occupational health and safety in cannabis production: an Australian perspective

References

• Narcotic Drugs Act 1967, C2016C01132. 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 as amended by the 1972 Protocol, 1961.
   Google Scholar
• Belackova V, Ritter A, Shanahan M, et al. Medicinal cannabis in Australia – framing the regulatory options. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Australia; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• University of Sydney. Medicinal cannabis in Australia: science, regulation & industry. Sydney Australia; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• NSW Government. Review of the medicinal cannabis compassionate use scheme sydney. Sydney Australia: NSW Government; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Deloitte Access Economics. Modelling the cost of medicinal cannabis. Control DoH-OoD, editor. Canberra: Department of Health - Office of Drug Control; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Cole C, Zurb B. Industrial hemp - a new crop. Wagga Wagga: NSW Department of Primary Industries; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Maier SL, Mannes S, Koppenhofer EL. The implications of marijuana decriminalization and legalization on crime in the United States. Contemp Drug Probl. 2017;44(2):125–146.
   Google Scholar
• Ghosh TS, Vigil DI, Maffey A, et al. Lessons learned after three years of legalized, recreational marijuana: the Colorado experience. Prev Med. 2017;104:4–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carnevale JT, Kagan R, Murphy PJ, et al. A practical framework for regulating for-profit recreational marijuana in US states: lessons from Colorado and Washington. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;42:71–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HS, Hall KE, Genco EK, et al. Marijuana tourism and emergency department visits in Colorado. New England J Med. 2016;374(8):797–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbero A, Flores R. Dust disease in hemp workers. Arch Environ Health: Int J. 1967;14(4):529–532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Ghawabi S. Respiratory function and symptoms in workers exposed simultaneously to jute and hemp. Occup Environ Med. 1978;35(1):16–20.
   Google Scholar
• Fishwick D, Allan L, Wright A, et al. Respiratory symptoms, lung function and cell surface markers in a group of hemp fiber processors. Am J Ind Med. 2001;39(4):419–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valić F, Žuškin E. Annual decline of ventilatory capacity and change in acute respiratory response in hemp exposure over a 10-year period. Internationales Archiv für Arbeitsmedizin. 1974;33(3):237–243.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zuskin E, Kanceljak B, Pokrajac D, et al. Respiratory symptoms and lung function in hemp workers. Occup Environ Med. 1990;47(9):627–632.
   Google Scholar
• Zuskin E, Kanceljak B, Schachter EN, et al. Immunological findings in hemp workers. Environ Res. 1992;59(2):350–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Žuškin E, Valić F. Peak flow rate in relation to forced expiratory volume in hemp workers. Occup Environ Med. 1971;28(2):159–163.
   Google Scholar
• Herzinger T, Schöpf P, Przybilla B, et al. IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reactions to cannabis in laboratory personnel. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2011;156(4):423–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victory K, Lowe B, Burton NC, et al. Evaluation of potential hazards during harvesting and processing cannabis at an outdoor organic farm. Cinncinati: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Walters KM, Fisher GG, Tenney L, et al. Work and well-being in the Colorado cannabis industry.Colorado: CDC/NIOSH Mountain and Plains Education and Research Center; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Potter DJ. Cannabis horticulture. In: Pertwee RG, editor. Handbook of cannabis. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2014. p. 65–88.
   Google Scholar
• Emboden WA. Cannabis—a polytypic genus. Econ Bot. 1974;28(3):304.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillig KW. Genetic evidence for speciation in cannabis (Cannabaceae). Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2005;52(2):161–180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandra S, Lata H, ElSohly MA, et al. Cannabis cultivation: methodological issues for obtaining medical-grade product. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;70:302–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly MA, Radwan MM, Gul W, et al. Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L.In: Douglas AK, Gibbons HF, Kobayashi J editors, Phytocannabinoids. Springer; 2017. p. 1–36.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin V. Cannabis and culture: Walter de Gruyter; The Hague. 1975.
   Google Scholar
• Small E Classification of Cannabis sativa L. in relation to agricultural, biotechnological, medical and recreational utilization. In: Cannabis sativa L-botany and biotechnology. Cham: Springer; 2017. p. 1–62.
   Google Scholar
• Fike J. Industrial hemp: renewed opportunities for an ancient crop. CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci. 2016;35(5–6):406–424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly M, Gul W. Constituents of Cannabis sativa. In: Handbook of cannabis. London: Oxford University Press; 2014. p. 3.
   Google Scholar
• Galal AM, Slade D, Gul W, et al. Naturally occurring and related synthetic cannabinoids and their potential therapeutic applications. Recent Pat CNS Drug Discov. 2009;4(2):112–136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russo EB. Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163(7):1344–1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo EB, Marcu J. Cannabis pharmacology: the usual suspects and a few promising leads. Adv Pharmacol. 2017;80: 67–134. Elsevier.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jiggens J. Sir Joseph Banks and the question of hemp: hemp, seapower and empire, 1776–1815. Australia: Indooroopilly; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• MARIHUANA DRUG IS BANNED. The Sun. 1938 Sat 27 Aug.
   Google Scholar
• Crawford F, Deards B, Moir B, et al. Human consumption of hemp seed: prospects for Australian production. Canberra: ABARES; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• ODC. Medicinal cannabis Canberra: office of drug control; 2017 [cited 2017 Jun 2]. Available from: https://www.odc.gov.au/qa.
   Google Scholar
• Bisetti AA. Bernardino Ramazzini and occupational lung medicine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1988;534(1):1029–1037.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liskow B, Liss JL, Parker CW. Allergy to marihuana. Ann Intern Med. 1971;75(4):571–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stadtmauer G, Beyer K, Bardina L, et al. Anaphylaxis to ingestion of hempseed (Cannabis sativa). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112(1):216–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stöckli SS, Bircher AJ. Generalized pruritus in a patient sensitized to tobacco and cannabis. JDDG. 2007;5(4):303–304.
   Google Scholar
• Aldington. Effects of cannabis on pulmonary structure, function and symptoms (vol 62, pg 1058, 2007). THORAX. 2008;63(4):385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basharat P, Sussman G, Beezhold D, et al. Hypersensitivity reactions to marijuana. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(2):AB178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagen SL, Kurup VP, Sohnle PG, et al. Marijuana smoking and fungal sensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1983;71(4):389–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar R, Gupta N. A case of bronchial asthma and allergic rhinitis exacerbated during Cannabis pollination and subsequently controlled by subcutaneous immunotherapy. Indian J Allergy, Asthma and Immunol. 2013;27:143.
   Google Scholar
• Abbas HS, Katelaris BC, Singh MA, et al. World allergy organization study on aerobiology for creating first pollen and mold calendar with clinical significance in Islamabad. Pakistan World Allergy Organ J. 2012;5(9):103–110.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aboulaich N, Trigo MM, Bouziane H, et al. Variations and origin of the atmospheric pollen of cannabis detected in the province of Tetouan (NW Morocco): 2008–2010. Sci Total Environ. 2013;443(C):413–419.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ebo D, Swerts S, Sabato V, et al. New food allergies in a European non-Mediterranean region: is Cannabis sativa to blame? Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2013;161(3):220–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macher J. Bioaerosols: assessment and control. Cinncinnati: ACGIH; 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Donham K. Agricultural medicine: rural occupational and environmental health, safety, and prevention. 2nd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Bouhuys A, Barbero A, Schilling RSF, et al. Chronic respiratory disease in hemp workers. Am J Med. 1969;46(4):526–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouhuys A, Gilson JC, Rs S. Byssinosis in the textile industry. Arch Environ Health: Int J. 1970;21(4):475–478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouhuys A, Heaphy LJ, Schilling RS, et al. Byssinosis in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1968;278(9):509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuskin E, Mustajbegovic J, En S. Follow-up study of respiratory function in hemp workers. Am J Ind Med. 1994;26(1):103–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbison R, Bourgeois M, Johnson G, et al. Hamilton & Hardy’s industrial toxicology. Sixth ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Fishwick D, Allan L, Wright A, et al. Assessment of exposure to organic dust in a hemp processing plant. Ann Occup Hyg. 2001;45(7):577–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noweir M. Studies on the etiology of byssinosis. CHEST. 1988;79(4):62S–7S.
   Google Scholar
• McPartland JM. Byssinosis in hemp mill workers. J Ind Hemp. 2003;8(1):33–44.
   Google Scholar
• Decuyper I, Ryckebosch H, Gasse A, et al. Cannabis allergy: what do we know Anno 2015. Arch Immunol Ther Exp. 2015;63(5):327–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes JR, Hartel R, Ford LB, et al. Cannabis (hemp) positive skin tests and respiratory symptoms. Ann Allergy, Asthma Immunol. 2000;85(3):238–240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nayak AP, Green BJ, Sussman G, et al. Allergenicity to Cannabis sativa L. and methods to assess personal exposure. In: Chandra S, Lata H, ElSohly MA, editors. Cannabis sativa L - botany and biotechnology. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. p. 263–284.
   Google Scholar
• Paris M, Boucher F, Cosson L. The constituents of Cannabis sativa pollen. Econ Bot. 1975;29(3):245–253.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haberle SG, Bowman DMJS, Newnham RM, et al. The macroecology of airborne pollen in Australian and New Zealand urban areas. PLOS ONE. 2014;9(5):e97925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies JM, Erbas B, Simunovic M, et al. Literature review on thunderstorm asthma and its implications for public health advice. Queensland University of Technology for the Department of Health and Human Services;2017.
   Google Scholar
• Vidal C, Fuilnte R, Iglesias A, et al. Bronchial asthma due to Cannabis sativa seed. Allergy. 1991;46(8):647–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman GL. Allergic skin test reactivity to marijuana in the southwest. West J Med. 1983;138(6):829.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gupta BN, Mehrotra NK, Clerk SH, et al. Immunotherapy in hemp workers having respiratory complaints. Indian J Med Sci. 1980;34(4):72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McKernan K, Spangler J, Helbert Y, et al. Metagenomic analysis of medicinal cannabis samples; pathogenic bacteria, toxigenic fungi, and beneficial microbes grow in culture-based yeast and mold tests. F1000Research. 2016. p. 5.
   Google Scholar
• Martyny JW, Serrano KA, Schaeffer JW, et al. Potential exposures associated with indoor marijuana growing operations. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2013;10:11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen VM, Winding A, Madsen AM. Exposure to bioaerosols during the growth season of tomatoes in an organic greenhouse using Supresivit (Trichoderma harzianum) and Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis). Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010;76(17):5874.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adhikari A, Gupta J, Wilkins JR, et al. Airborne microorganisms, endotoxin, and (1→3)-β- D -glucan exposure in greenhouses and assessment of respiratory symptoms among workers. Ann Occup Hyg. 2011;55(3):272–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen VM, Meyling NV, Winding A, et al. Factors affecting vegetable growers’ exposure to fungal bioaerosols and airborne dust. Ann Occup Hyg. 2012;56(2):170–181.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Costabel U, Bonella F, Guzman J. Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Clin Chest Med. 2012;33(1):151–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepys J, Jenkins PA, Festenstein GN, et al. Farmer’s lung thermophilic Actinomycetes as a source of “farmer’s lung hay” antigen. The Lancet. 1963;282(7308):607–611.
   Google Scholar
• Douwes J, Thorne P, Pearce N, et al. Bioaerosol health effects and exposure assessment: progress and prospects. Ann Occup Hyg. 2003;47(3):187–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canada Health. Pathogen safety data sheets: government of Canada; 2018 [cited 2018 Aug 21]. Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/enterococcus-faecalis.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hood L, Dames M, Barry G. Headspace volatiles of marijuana. Nature. 1973;242(5397):402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiewak R, Gora A, Dutkiewicz J. Work-related skin symptoms and type I allergy among eastern-Polish farmers growing hops and other crops. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2001;8(1):51–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson KA, Stjernberg NL, Levin JO, et al. Terpene exposure and respiratory effects among sawmill workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1996;22(3):182–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hessel PA, Herbert FA, Melenka LS, et al. Lung health in sawmill workers exposed to pine and spruce. Chest. 1995;108(3):642–646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GESTIS. GESTIS substance database Germany: GESTIS; [ cited 2017 Nov 9]. Available from: http://gestis-en.itrust.de.
   Google Scholar
• Doran GS, Deans R, De Filippis C, et al. The presence of licit and illicit drugs in police stations and their implications for workplace drug testing. Forensic Sci Int. 2017;278:125–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doran GS, Deans R, De Filippis C, et al. Work place drug testing of police officers after THC exposure during large volume cannabis seizures. Forensic Sci Int. 2017;275:224–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dryburgh LM, Bolan NS, Grof CPL, et al. Cannabis contaminants: sources, distribution, human toxicity and pharmacologic effects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2018. DOI:10.1111/bcp.13695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Editorial. Ban butane hash oil extraction. The Denver Post. 2014 5 September.
   Google Scholar
• Hidta RM. Hash oil extraction hazards: safety for first responders 2014 [cited 2018 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.rmhidta.org/html/Hash%20Oil%20Extraction%20Explosions.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Busick J. Supercritical CO2: the green solution that created a deadly hazard: EHS daily advisor; 2016 [cited 2017 Nov 9]. Available from: https://ehsdailyadvisor.blr.com/2016/06/supercritical-co2-the-green-solution-that-created-a-deadly-hazard/.
   Google Scholar
• Lucas S, Alonso E, Sanz JA, et al. Safety study in a supercritical extraction plant. Chem Eng Technol. 2003;26(4):449–461.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazekamp A. Evaluating the effects of gamma-irradiation for decontamination of medicinal cannabis. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuskin E, Valic F, Bouhuys A. Byssinosis and airway responses due to exposure to textile dust. Lung. 1976;154(1):17–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar