Regulating algorithms in the digital market: a revisit of Indonesian competition law and policy

References

• CCCS Notice of Interim Measures Directions, 13 April 2018, Case No. 500/001/18.
   Google Scholar
• CCCS Occasional Paper, Data: Engine for Growth – Implications for Competition Law, Personal Data Protection, and Intellectual Property Rights, in collaboration with Intellectual Property Office of Singapore and Personal Data Protection Commission, Singapore. Aug. 16, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• District Court of South Jakarta Judgment 468/Pdt.P /2020/PN Jkt Sel, 483.
   Google Scholar
• Government Regulation 57/2010 concerning Mergers, Consolidations, and Acquisitions of Shares that Could Result in Monopoly Practices and Unfair Competition.
   Google Scholar
• Guidelines for Article 19 Lit. d (Discriminatory Practices) Law Number 5 of 1999 concerning Prohibition of Monopolistic Practices and Unfair Business Competition.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Decision 08/KPPU-I/2020 Dugaan Praktek Diskriminasi PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia (Perser) Tbk dan PT Telekomunikasi Seluler terhadap Netflix Terkait Penyediaan Layanan Akses Internet Provider.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Decision 13/KPPU-I/2019 Dugaan Pelanggaran Pasal 14, 15 ayat (2) dan Pasal 19 huruf d UU Nomor 5 Tahun 1999 yang Dilakukan oleh PT Solusi Transportasi Indonesia dan PT Teknologi Pengangkutan Indonesia Terkait Jasa Angkutan Sewa Khusus.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Decision 15/KPPU-I/2019 Dugaan Pelanggaran Pasal 5 dan Pasal 11 UU Nomor 5 Tahun 1999 Terkait Jasa Angkutan Udara Niaga Berjadwal Penumpang Kelas Ekonomi Dalam Negeri.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Regulation 3/2019 concerning the Evaluation of Mergers, Consolidations, and Acquisitions of Shares that Could Result in Monopoly Practices and Unfair Competition.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Regulation 4/2010 concerning Implementation Guidelines on Article 11 concerning Cartel, 15.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Regulation 4/2016 concerning Guidelines for the Use of the Checklist of Competition Policy.
   Google Scholar
• ICC. The Acquisition of Uber Assets in Indonesia. 26 April 2018. Accessed December 25, 2022. https://eng.kppu.go.id/the-acquisition-of-uber-assets-in-indonesia/.
   Google Scholar
• Joined Cases T-101/05 and T-111/05, BASF and UCB v Commission, 2007 E.C.R. II-4949.
   Google Scholar
• Law 5/1999 concerning the Prohibition of Monopoly Practices and Unfair Business Practices.
   Google Scholar
• Monopolkommission. 2018. Algorithms and Collusion. Accessed December 23, 2022. https://www.monopolkommission.de/images/HG22/Main_Report_XXII_Algorithms_and_Collusion.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Objection Document 365/Pdt.Sus-KPPU/2020/PN Jkt.Pst.
   Google Scholar
• American Tobacco Co. v. United States, 328 U.S. 781. 1946.
   Google Scholar
• Baby Food Antitrust Litigation, 166 F.3d 112, 117 n.3. 3d Cir. 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Ballard, D. I., and A. S. Naik. 2017. Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, and Joint Conduct. Antitrust Chronicle. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.competitionpolicyinternational.com/algorithms-artificial-intelligence-and-joint-conduct/.
   Google Scholar
• Bernama. 2019. AirAsia Wins World's Best Low-Cost Airline Title. New Straits Times. 18 June 2019. Accessed January 5, 2023. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2019/06/497350/airasia-wins-worlds-best-low-cost-airline-title.
   Google Scholar
• Calvano, E., G. Calzolari, V. Denicolo, and S. Pastorello. 2020. “Artificial Intelligence, Algorithmic Pricing, and Collusion.” American Economic Review 110: 3267–3297. doi:10.1257/aer.20190623
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Case 500/001/18 Acquisition of Uber’s Southeast Asian business by Grab and Uber's acquisition of a 27.5 per cent stake in Grab. 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Case AT.39740 Google Search (Shopping), C. 2017. 4444 final, June 27, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Castelluccia, C., and D. L. Métayer. 2019. Understanding Algorithmic Decision Making: Opportunities and Challenges. Accessed December 23, 2022. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/624261/EPRS_STU(2019)624261_EN.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• CDEI. 2020. Review Into Bias in Algorithmic Decision-Making. Accessed January 5, 2023. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957259/Review_into_bias_in_algorithmic_decision-making.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Cormen, T. H., C. E. Leiserson, R. R. Rivest, and C. Stein. 2009. Introduction to Algorithms. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• DotEcon Study for the Competition Commission of Singapore. 2015. E-commerce and its impact on competition policy and law in Singapore. Final Report. October 2015. Accessed December 19, 2022. https://www.dotecon.com/assets/images/DotEcon-Ecommerce-Final-Report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Erickson, J. 2019. Algorithms. Accessed January 1, 2023. http://jeffe.cs.illinois.edu/teaching/algorithms/.
   Google Scholar
• European Data Protection Supervisor Opinion 4/2015. 2015. Towards A New Digital Ethics: Data, Dignity, and Technology. 11 September 2015. Accessed January 6, 2023. https://edps.europa.eu/sites/edp/files/publication/15-09-11_data_ethics_en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. Deal on Digital Markets Act: EU Rules to Ensure Fair Competition and More Choice for Users. News. 24 March 2022. Accessed January 6, 2023. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220315IPR25504/deal-on-digital-markets-act-ensuring-fair-competition-and-more-choice-for-users.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. Regulating Digital Gatekeepers: Background on the Future Digital Markets Act. Briefing. December 2020. Accessed January 6, 2023. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2020/659397/EPRS_BRI(2020)659397_EN.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Ezrachi, A., and M. E. Stucke. 2016. Virtual Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ezrachi, A., and M. E. Stucke. 2017a. “Artificial Intelligence and Collusion: When Computers Inhibit Competition.” University of Illinois Law Review 5: 1775–1810. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2591874
   Google Scholar
• Ezrachi, A., and M. E. Stucke. 2017b. “Emerging Antitrust Threats and Enforcement Actions in the Online World.” Competition Law International 13: 125–136. doi:10.1093/joclec/nhx004
   Google Scholar
• Gal, M. 2019. “Algorithms as Illegal Agreements.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 34: 67–118. doi:10.15779/Z38VM42X86
   Google Scholar
• Gal, M., and N. Elkin-Koren. 2017. “Algorithmic Consumers.” Harvard Journal of Law and Technology 30 (2): 309–353. doi:10.36645/mtlr.25.1.algorithmic
   Google Scholar
• Ghezzi, F., and M. Maggiolino. 2014. “Bridging EU Concerted Practices with U.S. Concerted Actions.” Journal of Competition Law and Economics 10 (3): 647–690. doi:10.1093/joclec/nhu010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, B. G., and Q. Z. Sheng. 2019. Machine Learning for Computer and Cyber Security: Principles, Algorithm, and Practices. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen, K., P. W. Heermann, and W. Kartte. 2002. Law Concerning Prohibition of Monopolistic Practices and Unfair Business Competition. Jakarta: Katalis.
   Google Scholar
• Harrington, J. E. 2019. “Developing Competition law for Collusion by Autonomous Artificial Agents.” Journal of Competition Law and Economics 14: 331. doi:10.1093/joclec/nhy016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ICC. 2020. Penelitian Pelaku Usaha dan Struktur Pasar pada Sektor Ekonomi Digital.
   Google Scholar
• Keller, J. V. 2022. “Game Theory Without Theory: Interactive Choice in Pigeons, Humans, and Machines.” Learning and Motivation 77: 1–19. Accessed January 1, 2023. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0023969022000042?via%3Dihub. doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101784
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malgieri, G., and G. Comandé. 2017. “Why A Right to Legibility of Automated Decision-Making Exists in the General Data Protection Regulation.” International Data Privacy Law 7 (4): 243. doi:10.1093/idpl/ipx019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malia, I. 2019. KPPU Masih Dalami Raibnya Tiket AirAsia di Online Travel Agent. IDN Times. 21 March 2019. Accessed December 23, 2022. https://www.idntimes.com/business/economy/indianamalia/kppu-masih-dalami-raibnya-tiket-airasia-di-online-travel-agent?page=all.
   Google Scholar
• Mehra, S. K. 2016. “Antitrust and the Robo-Seller: Competition in the Time of Algorithms.” Minnesota Law Review 100: 1323–1375.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno Belloso, N. 2022. The EU Digital Markets Act (DMA): A Summary (May 13, 2022) Accessed January 19, 2023. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4109299 or. doi:10.2139/ssrn.4109299.
   Google Scholar
• Noveria, C. A. P. 2019. KPPU: Tarif Batas Bawah Penerbangan Tidak Mendukung Persaingan Sehat. Alinea. 2 April 2019. Accessed December 23, 2022. https://www.alinea.id/bisnis/kppu-tarif-batas-bawah-penerbangan-tidak-mendukung-persaingan-sehat-b1Xem9iKV.
   Google Scholar
• OECD. 2017. Algorithms and Collusion: Competition Policy in the Digital Age. Accessed January 19, 2023. www.oecd.org/competition/algorithms-collusion-competition-policy-in-the-digital-age.htm.
   Google Scholar
• OECD. 2021. Ex Ante Regulation of Digital Markets, OECD Competition Committee Discussion Paper. Accessed January 19, 2023. https://www.oecd.org/daf/competition/ex-ante-regulation-andcompetition-in-digital-markets.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Osoba, O. A., and W. Welser IV. 2017. An Intelligence in Our Image: Bias and Errors in Artificial Intelligence. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Pagallo, U. 2013. The Laws of Robots: Crimes, Contracts, and Torts. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Page, W. H. 2012. “A neo-Chicago Approach to Concerted Action.” Antitrust Law Journal 78: 173–200. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1782896
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picht, P. G., and B. Freund. 2018. Competition (Law) in the Era of Algorithms. Max Planck Institute for Innovation and Competition Research Paper No. 18-10: 1–18. Accessed December 25, 2022. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3180550.
   Google Scholar
• Picht, P. G., G. T. Loderer, and G. Tazio. 2019. “Framing Algorithms: Competition law and (Other) Regulatory Tools.” World Competition 42 (3): 391–417. doi:10.54648/woco2019022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podszun, R., P. Bongratz, and S. Langenstein. 2021. “The Digital Markets Act: Moving from Competition Law to Regulation for Large Gatekeepers.” Journal of European Consumer and Market Law 10 (2): 60–67.
   Google Scholar
• Puspa, A. W. 2020. Putusan KPPU Dibatalkan, Lion Air Group Tak Terlibat Kartel Tiket. Ekonomi & Bisnis. 14 October 2020. Accessed December 23, 2022. https://ekonomi.bisnis.com/read/20201014/98/1305042/putusan-kppu-dibatalkan-lion-air-group-tak-terlibat-kartel-tiket.
   Google Scholar
• Qaqaya, H., and G. Lipmile, eds. 2008. The Effects of Anti-Competitive Business Practices on Developing Countries and Their Development Prospects. New York and Geneva: UNCTAD. Accessed January 19, 2023. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditcclp20082_en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Sirait, N. N., A. F. Lubis, and H. W. Wulandari, eds. 2017. Hukum Persaingan Usaha: Buku Teks. Jakarta: KPPU.
   Google Scholar
• Stigler, G. J. 1964. “Theory of Oligopoly.” Political Economy 72: 44–61. doi:10.1086/258853
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stucke, M. E. 2019. “Pricing Algorithms and Collusion.” Transactions: The Tennessee Journal of Business Law 9: 1113–1133.
   Google Scholar
• Supreme Court Registration Case 485 K/Pdt.Sus-KPPU/2021.
   Google Scholar
• Van Roozendaal, M. 2018. Algorithms: Teenage Troublemakers of EU Competition Law, A Closer Look at Algorithms as the New Price-Fixing Tool in EU Competition Law. Vienna: European Law Institute. Accessed December 25, 2022. https://www.europeanlawinstitute.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/p_eli/YLA_Award/Submission_ELI_Young_Lawyers_Award_Manon_van_Roozendaal_2018.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, R. A., and F. Keil. 1999. The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar