How refugees work together: the politics of solidarity and ‘invisible’ collective action during COVID-19

References

• Abdelaaty, L. 2021. Discrimination and Delegation: Explaining State Responses to Refugees. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Abraham, I., and M. Jaehn. 2019. “‘Immanent Nation’: The Rohingya Quest for International Recognition.” Nations and Nationalism 26 (4): 1054–1068. doi:10.1111/nana.12560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aswani, T. 2021. “Delhi Riots, Tablighi Jamaat Vilification Leave African Muslim Refugees in India Shaken.” The Wire. https://thewire.in/communalism/african-muslim-refugees-india-riots-tablighi-jamaat.
   Google Scholar
• Ataç, I. 2016. “‘Refugee Protest Camp Vienna’: Making Citizens Through Locations of the Protest Movement.” Citizenship Studies 20 (5): 629–646. doi:10.1080/13621025.2016.1182676.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ataç, I., S. Kron, S. Schilliger, H. Schwiertz, and M. Stierl. 2015. “Struggles of Migration as In-/Visible Politics: Introduction.” Movements: Journal für Kritische Migrations- und Grenzregimeforschung 1 (2): 1–18. https://movements-journal.org/issues/02.kaempfe/01.ata%C3%A7,kron,schilliger,schwiertz,stierl–einleitung~en.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Bauder, H. 2021. “Urban Migrant and Refugee Solidarity Beyond City Limits.” Urban Studies 58 (16): 3213–3229. doi:10.1177/0042098020976308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borjas, G., and J. Monras. 2017. “The Labour Market Consequences of Refugee Supply Shocks.” Economic Policy 32 (91): 361–413. doi:10.1093/epolic/eix007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein, E. 2012. Disquieting Gifts: Humanitarianism in New Delhi. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brković, Č. 2020. “Vernacular Humanitarianism.” In Humanitarianism, edited by A. D. Lauri. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004431140_0104.
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, R. 2002. “Ethnicity Without Groups.” European Journal of Sociology 43 (2): 163–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burra, S. 2022. “India’s Refugee Protection Obligations Beyond the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol.” In The Routledge Handbook of Refugees in India, edited by S. I. Rajan. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Cabot, H. 2019. “The European Refugee Crisis and Humanitarian Citizenship in Greece.” Ethnos 84 (5): 747–771. doi:10.1080/00141844.2018.1529693.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantat, C. 2016. “Rethinking Mobilities: Solidarity and Migrant Struggles Beyond Narratives of Crisis.” Intersections 2 (4): 11–32. doi:10.17356/ieejsp.v2i4.286.
   Google Scholar
• Cantat, C. 2021. “Refugee Solidarity Along the Balkan Route.” Journal of Refugee Studies 34 (2): 1348–1369. doi:10.1093/jrs/feab010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carruth, L. 2021. Love and Liberation: Humanitarian Work in Ethiopia’s Somali Region. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carruth, L., and L. Smith. 2022. “Building One’s Own House: Power and Escape for Ethiopian Women Through International Migration.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 60 (1): 85–109. doi:10.1017/S0022278X21000434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chimienti, M. 2011. “Mobilization of Irregular Migrants in Europe: A Comparative Analysis.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 34 (8): 1338–1356. doi:10.1080/01419870.2011.566624.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chimni, B. S. 2003. “Status of Refugees in India: Strategic Ambiguity.” In Refugees and the State: Practices of Asylum and Care in India, 1947–2000, edited by R. Samaddar, 443–471. New Delhi: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Chimni, B. S. 2016. “Outside the Bounds of Citizenship: The Status of Aliens, Illegal Migrants and Refugees in India.” In Refugees and Rights, edited by M. Crock, 822–861. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, R. 2001. “Social Movements and the Focus of Emotional Attention.” In Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements, edited by J. Goodwin, J. M. Jasper, and F. Polletta, 27–44. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• della Porta, D. 1995. Social Movements, Political Violence and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• della Porta, D., ed. 2018. Solidarity Mobilizations in the ‘Refugee Crisis’: Contentious Moves. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Diani, M. and D. McAdam, eds. 2003. Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Doshi, V. 2018. “India Deports Rohingya Muslims, Drawing U.N. Ire.” The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/india-deports-rohingya-muslims-drawing-un-ire/2018/10/04/a033de20-c7cb-11e8-9158-09630a6d8725_story.html.
   Google Scholar
• Feischmidt, M., L. Pries, and C. Cantat, eds. 2018. Refugee Protection and Civil Society in Europe. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Fireman, B., and W. A. Gamson. 1979. “Utilitarian Logic in the Resource Mobilization Perspective.” In The Dynamics of Social Movements: Resource Mobilization, Social Control, and Tactics, edited by J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald, 8–44. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Gamson, W. A. 1991. “Commitment and Agency in Social Movements.” Sociological Forum 6 (1): 27–50. doi:10.1007/BF01112726.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giugni, M., and F. Passy, eds. 2001. Political Altruism? Solidarity Movements in International Perspective. Boulder, CO: Rowman and Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Goodwin, J. 1997. “The Libidinal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Movement: Affectual Ties and Solidarity in the Huk Rebellion, 1946 to 1954.” American Sociological Review 62 (1): 53–69. doi:10.2307/2657452.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin, J., J. M. Jasper, and J. Khattra. 1999. “Caught in a Winding, Snarling Vine: The Structural Bias of Political Process Theory.” Sociological Forum 14 (1): 27–54. doi:10.1023/A:1021684610881.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin, J., and S. Pfaff. 2001. “Emotion Work in High-Risk Social Movements: Managing Fear in the U.S. and East German Civil Rights Movements.” In Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements, edited by J. Goodwin, J. M. Jasper, and F. Polletta, 282–302. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Delhi. 2020. “Employment Survey in Delhi.” Government of Delhi. http://des.delhigovt.nic.in/wps/wcm/connect/7e25cc0041e59e7fa39bb328c2355f02/Employment+Survey+in+Delhi+2020-compressed.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=884089966&CACHEID=7e25cc0041e59e7fa39bb328c2355f02.
   Google Scholar
• Government of India. 1955. “The Citizenship Act, 1955.” Act No. 57, Government of India. https://www.tiss.edu/uploads/files/Citizenship_Act_1955.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Gujarat High Court. 1999. “Ktaer Abbas Habib Al Qutaifi and Another vs. Union of India and Others.” 1999 CRI.L.J. 919, Gujarat High Court. https://www.refworld.org/cases,IND_HC,3f4b8cbd4.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hechter, M. 1987. Principles of Group Solidarity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• The Hindu. 2020. “Tablighi Jamaat: Delhi Police Files 35 Charge Sheets Against 376 Foreigners,” The Hindu. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/tablighi-jamaat-delhi-police-files-35-charge-sheets-against-376-foreigners/story-VHqzEaD1iKijI8LWUXvZqN.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, S. A., and R. D. Benford. 2004. “Collective Identity, Solidarity, and Commitment.” In The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, and H. Kriesi, 433–457. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, A. 2016. The Rohingyas: Inside Burma’s Genocide. London: C. Hurst and Co. Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen, K. 1996. “Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes.” International Migration Review 30 (3): 655–678. doi:10.1177/019791839603000301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasper, J. M. 1998. “The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions in and Around Social Movements.” Sociological Forum 13 (3): 397–424. doi:10.1023/A:1022175308081.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, D. 2012. ““Our Kith and Kin”?: Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees and the Ethnonationalist Parties of Tamil Nadu.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 18 (4): 431–451. doi:10.1080/13537113.2012.734174.
   Google Scholar
• Klandermans, B., J. van der Toorn, and J. van Stekelenburg. 2008. “Embeddedness and Identity: How Immigrants Turn Grievances Into Action.” American Sociological Review 73 (6): 992–1012. doi:10.1177/000312240807300606.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macrae, J., S. Jaspers, M. Duffield, M. Bradbury, and D. Johnson. 1997. “Conflict, the Continuum and Chronic Emergencies: A Critical Analysis of the Scope for Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development Planning in Sudan.” Disasters 21 (3): 223–243. doi:10.1111/1467-7717.00058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malkki, L. H. 1995. Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, A. 2005. “Environmental Conflict between Refugee and Host Communities.” Journal of Peace Research 42 (3): 329–346. doi:10.1177/0022343305052015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez, C., L. Carruth, H. Janeway, L. Smith, K. M. Donato, C. Piñones-Rivera, J. Quesada, and S. M. Holmes. 2022. “How Should Clinicians Express Solidarity With Asylum Seekers at the US-Mexico Border?” AMA Journal of Ethics 24 (4): E275–E282. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2022.275.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayda, A.-M., C. Parsons, H. Pham, and P.-L. Vezina. 2022. “Refugees and Foreign Direct Investment: Quasi-Experimental Evidence from US Resettlements.” Journal of Development Economics 156: 102818. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2022.102818.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAdam, D. [1982] 1999. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy, J. D., and M. N. Zald. 1977. “Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory.” American Journal of Sociology 82 (6): 1212–1241. doi:10.1086/226464.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melucci, A. 1985. “The Symbolic Challenge of Contemporary Movements.” Social Research 52 (4): 789–816. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40970398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melucci, A. 1989. Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society. London: Hutchinson Radius.
   Google Scholar
• Melucci, A. 1996. Challenging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Law and Justice. 2019. “The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019.” Act No. 47, Gazette of India. https://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2019/214646.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Monforte, P., and P. Dufour. 2011. “Mobilizing in Borderline Citizenship Regimes: A Comparative Analysis of Undocumented Migrants’ Collective Actions.” Politics and Society 39 (2): 203–232. doi:10.1177/0032329211405436.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monforte, P., and P. Dufour. 2013. “Comparing the Protests of Undocumented Migrants Beyond Contexts: Collective Actions as Acts of Emancipation.” European Political Science Review 5 (1): 83–104. doi:10.1017/S1755773912000045.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moro, L. N. 2004. “Interethnic Relations in Exile: The Politics of Ethnicity among Sudanese Refugees in Uganda and Egypt.” Journal of Refugee Studies 17 (4): 420–436. doi:10.1093/jrs/17.4.420.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, A. 1981. “Black Southern Student Sit-in Movement: An Analysis of Internal Organization.” American Sociological Review 46 (6): 744–767. doi:10.2307/2095077.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, A. D. 1984. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholls, W. J. 2013a. “Fragmenting Citizenship: Dynamics of Cooperation and Conflict in France’s Immigrant Rights Movement.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 36 (4): 611–631. doi:10.1080/01419870.2011.626055.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls, W. J. 2013b. The DREAMers: How the Undocumented Youth Movement Transformed the Immigrant Rights Debate. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholls, W. J., and J. Uitermark. 2017. Cities and Social Movements: Immigrant Rights Activism in the US, France, and the Netherlands, 1970–2015. Sussex, UK: John Wiley and Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Olson, M. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Polletta, F. 1999. “‘Free Spaces’ in Collective Action.” Theory and Society 28 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1023/A:1006941408302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polletta, F., and J. M. Jasper. 2001. “Collective Identity and Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 27: 283–305. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.283.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prainsack, B., and A. Buyx. 2018. Solidarity in Biomedicine and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Press Information Bureau. 2021. “Various Relief Measures for Several Sectors to Fight COVID-19 Pandemic Annexure: Statement Referred to in Reply to Parts (a) to (c) of LSUSQ No. 217 for Answer on 19.07.2021.” Government of India.
   Google Scholar
• Ramasubramanyam, J. 2021. “Regional Refugee Regimes: South Asia.” In The Oxford Handbook of International Refugee Law, edited by C. Costello, M. Foster, and J. McAdam, 407–422. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Routray, B. P. 2007. “Tibetan Refugees in India: Religious Identity and the Forces of Modernity.” Refugee Survey Quarterly 26 (2): 79–90. doi:10.1093/rsq/hdi0229.
   Google Scholar
• Rozakou, K. 2017. “Solidarity #Humanitarianism: The Blurred Boundaries of Humanitarianism in Greece.” Etnofoor 29 (2): 99–104. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26296172.
   Google Scholar
• Ruparelia, S. 2006. “Rethinking Institutional Theories of Political Moderation: The Case of Hindu Nationalism in India, 1996–2004.” Comparative Politics 38 (3): 317–336. doi:10.2307/20434000.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rygiel, K. 2011. “Bordering Solidarities: Migrant Activism and the Politics of Movement and Camps at Calais.” Citizenship Studies 15 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1080/13621025.2011.534911.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandri, E. 2018. “‘Volunteer Humanitarianism’: Volunteers and Humanitarian Aid in the Jungle Refugee Camp of Calais.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 44 (1): 65–80. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2017.1352467.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos, F. G. 2020. “Social Movements and the Politics of Care: Empathy, Solidarity and Eviction Blockades.” Social Movement Studies 19 (2): 125–143. doi:10.1080/14742837.2019.1665504.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. 1985. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, J. 1990. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sen, S. 2003. “Paradoxes of the International Regime of Care: The Role of the UNHCR in India.” In Refugees and the State: Practices of Asylum and Care in India, 1947–2000, edited by R. Samaddar, 396–442. New Delhi: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, L., D. A. Howard, M. Giordano, N. S. Yossinger, L. Kinne, and S. F. Martin. 2021. “Local Integration and Shared Resource Management in Protracted Refugee Camps: Findings from a Study in the Horn of Africa.” Journal of Refugee Studies 34 (1): 787–805. doi:10.1093/jrs/fez010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Supreme Court of India. 2020. “Jamiat Ulama-i-Hind and Others vs. Union of India and Others: Writ Petition Under Article 32 of the Constitution of India Seeking to Address the Communalization of Nizamuddin Markaz Issue by Certain Sections of the Media.” Supreme Court of India. https://www.scobserver.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Jamiat-Ulama-I-Hind_WPC_1083_2019.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• UNHCR. 2007. “Advisory Opinion on the Extraterritorial Application of Non-Refoulement Obligations Under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol.” UN High Commissioner for Refugees. https://www.unhcr.org/4d9486929.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• UNHCR. 2019. “Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2019.” UN High Commissioner for Refugees. https://www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• UNHCR. 2020. “Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2020.” UN High Commissioner for Refugees. https://www.unhcr.org/pl/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2021/06/2020-global-trends.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• UNHCR. 2022. India: Latest Updates. UN High Commissioner for Refugees.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. 1949. “Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War.” https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-crimes/Doc.34_AP-I-EN.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Vandevoordt, R. 2019. “Subversive Humanitarianism: Rethinking Refugee Solidarity Through Grass-Roots Initiatives.” Refugee Survey Quarterly 38 (3): 245–265. doi:10.1093/rsq/hdz008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varshney, A. 2014. “India’s Watershed Vote: Hindu Nationalism in Power?” Journal of Democracy 25 (4): 34–45. doi:10.1353/jod.2014.0071.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varshney, A., S. Ayyangar, and S. Swaminathan. 2021. “Populism and Hindu Nationalism in India.” Studies in Comparative International Development 56: 197–222. doi:10.1007/s12116-021-09335-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Wire. 2020. “‘Finding a Scapegoat’: 109 Citizens Urge Govt, Media to Stop Communalising COVID-19.” The Wire. https://thewire.in/communalism/coronavirus-tablighi-jamaat-scapegoat-muslims.
   Google Scholar
• Zamponi, L. 2017. “Practices of Solidarity: Direct Social Action, Politicisation and Refugee Solidarity Activism in Italy.” Mondi Migranti 3: 97–117. doi:10.3280/MM2017-003005.
   Google Scholar