1,526
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

Use of Force to Protect Civilians in United Nations Peacekeeping: Military Culture, Organisational Learning and Troop Reticence

ORCID Icon &

References

  • Albrecht, P. and Cold-Ravnkilde, S., 2020. National interests as friction: peacekeeping in Somalia and Mali. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 14 (2), 204–220. doi:10.1080/17502977.2020.1719789.
  • Allen, K., 2014, June 10. South Sudan: women raped under the noses of UN forces. BBC News. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-27765898 [Accessed 1 Mar 2021].
  • Anderson, N., 2014. Peacekeepers fighting a counterinsurgency campaign: a net assessment of the African Union Mission in Somalia. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37 (11), 936–958. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2014.952260.
  • Andrews Morrell, S., 2017. Drones in the DRC: a case study for future deployment in United Nations peacekeeping. Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology and Society, 10 (2), 1–10.
  • Barnett, M.N., 1997. The UN Security Council, indifference, and genocide in Rwanda. Cultural Anthropology, 12 (4), 551–578. doi:10.1525/can.1997.12.4.551.
  • Bell, A.M., 2016. Military culture and restraint toward civilians in war: examining the Ugandan civil wars. Security Studies, 25 (3), 488–518. doi:10.1080/09636412.2016.1195626.
  • Bellamy, A.J. and Hunt, C.T., 2021. Using force to protect civilians in UN peacekeeping. Survival, 63 (3), 143–170. doi:10.1080/00396338.2021.1930411.
  • Bennett, H., 2007. The other side of the COIN: minimum and exemplary force in British Army Counterinsurgency in Kenya. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 18 (4), 638–664. doi:10.1080/09592310701778514.
  • Berdal, M., 1996. The United Nations system of command and control of peacekeeping operations. The International Spectator, 31 (1), 13–24. doi:10.1080/03932729608456727.
  • Berdal, M., 2019. What are the limits to the use of force in UN peacekeeping? In: C. De Coning and M. Peter, eds. United Nations peace operations in a changing global order. London/New York: Springer Nature, pp. 113–132.
  • Blocq, D., 2010. Western soldiers and the protection of local civilians in UN peacekeeping operations: is a nationalist orientation in the armed forces hindering our preparedness to fight? Armed Forces & Society, 36 (2), 290–309. doi:10.1177/0095327X08330816.
  • Bove, V. and Elia, L., 2011. Supplying peace: participation in and troop contribution to peacekeeping missions. Journal of Peace Research, 48 (6), 699–714. doi:10.1177/0022343311418265.
  • Bove, V., Ruffa, C., and Ruggeri, A., 2020. Composing Peace: mission Composition in UN Peacekeeping. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Bove, V. and Ruggeri, A., 2016. Kinds of blue: diversity in UN peacekeeping missions and civilian protection. British Journal of Political Science, 46 (3), 681–700. doi:10.1017/S0007123415000034.
  • Bullion, A., 2001. India in Sierra Leone: a case of muscular peacekeeping? International Peacekeeping, 8 (4), 77–91. doi:10.1080/13533310108413921.
  • Cariappa, M.P., Bonventre, E.V., and Mohanti, B.K., 2008. Operation Sadbhavana: winning hearts and minds in the Ladakh Himalayan region. Military Medicine, 173 (8), 749–753. doi:10.7205/MILMED.173.8.749.
  • Cassidy, R.M., 2006. Counterinsurgency and the global war on terror: military culture and irregular war. Westport, Connecticut/London: Praeger.
  • Centre for Civilians in Conflict, 2016. Under fire: the July 2016 violence in Juba and the UN response. Available from: https://civiliansinconflict.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/civic-juba-violence-report-october-2016.pdf [Accessed 10 Dec 2020].
  • Cohen, S.P., 1971. The Indian Army: its contribution to the development of a nation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Cruz, D.S.A.C., Phillips, W., and Cusimano, S., 2017, December 19. Improving security of United Nations peacekeepers. New York: UN.
  • Dirkzwager, A.J.E., Bramsen, I., and van der Ploeg, M., 2005. Factors associated with posttraumatic stress among peacekeeping soldiers. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 18 (1), 37–51. doi:10.1080/10615800412336418.
  • Dixon, P., 2009. “Hearts and minds”? British counter-insurgency from Malaya to Iraq. Journal of Strategic Studies, 32 (3), 353–381. doi:10.1080/01402390902928172.
  • Duarte Villa, R. and Jenne, N., 2020. By all necessary means? Emerging powers and the use of force in peacekeeping. Contemporary Security Policy, 41 (3), 407–431. doi:10.1080/13523260.2019.1698691.
  • Duffey, T., 2000. Cultural issues in contemporary peacekeeping. International Peacekeeping, 7 (1), 142–168. doi:10.1080/13533310008413823.
  • Dyson, T., 2020. A revolution in military learning? Cross-functional teams and knowledge transformation by lessons-learned processes. European Security, 29 (4), 483–505. doi:10.1080/09662839.2020.1795835.
  • Fjelde, H., Hultman, L., and Nilsson, D., 2019. Protection through presence: UN peacekeeping and the costs of targeting civilians. International Organization, 73 (1), 103–131. doi:10.1017/S0020818318000346.
  • Foltyn, S., 2016, June 22. UN says response to violence in its South Sudan camp marred by confusion. The Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jun/22/malakal-camp-south-sudan-un-united-nations-says-response-violence-marred-by-confusion [Accessed 27 Feb 2021].
  • Friesendorf, C., 2018. How western soldiers fight: organizational routines in multinational missions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Friis, K., 2010. Peacekeeping and Counter-insurgency–two of a Kind? International Peacekeeping, 17 (1), 49–66. doi:10.1080/13533311003589199.
  • Garg, A., 2017, April 11. Indian battalion conducts well-attended veterinary camp in Malakal. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan/indian-battalion-conducts-well-attended-veterinary-camp-malakal [Accessed 12 Jan 2022].
  • Goulart, F.R., 2021. Blue helmets, armed groups, and peace at stake: does combat motivation matter for robust peacekeeping to succeed? International Peacekeeping, 28 (1), 30–51. doi:10.1080/13533312.2020.1827950.
  • Haass, F. and Ansorg, N., 2018. Better peacekeepers, better protection? Troop quality of United Nations peace operations and violence against civilians. Journal of Peace Research, 55 (6), 742–758. doi:10.1177/0022343318785419.
  • Hajjar, R.M., 2014. Emergent postmodern US military culture. Armed Forces & Society, 40 (1), 118–145. doi:10.1177/0095327X12465261.
  • Harig, C., 2019. Re-Importing the ‘robust turn’in UN peacekeeping: internal public security missions of Brazil’s military. International Peacekeeping, 26 (2), 137–164. doi:10.1080/13533312.2018.1554442.
  • Hasik, J., 2013. Learning in counterinsurgency: what do we really know? Defense & Security Analysis, 29 (3), 203–217. doi:10.1080/14751798.2013.820964.
  • Holt, V.K., Taylor, G., and Kelly, M., 2009. Protecting civilians in the context of UN peacekeeping operations: successes, setbacks and remaining challenges. New York: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA).
  • Howard, L., 2019. Peacekeeping is not counterinsurgency. International Peacekeeping, 26 (5), 545–548. doi:10.1080/13533312.2019.1677288.
  • Huber, R.K., 1991. Parity and stability: some conclusions from geometrical models of military operations in Central Europe. International Interactions, 16 (4), 225–238. doi:10.1080/03050629108434759.
  • Hultman, L., Kathman, J., and Shannon, M., 2013. United Nations peacekeeping and civilian protection in civil war. American Journal of Political Science, 57 (4), 875–891.
  • Human Rights Watch, 2008, December 11. Killings in Kiwanja: the UN’s inability to protect civilians.
  • Jackson, M., 2003. The realities of multi-national command: an informal commentary. In: G. Till and G. Sheffield, eds. The challenges of high command: the British experience. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 139–145.
  • Karlsrud, J., 2015. The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36 (1), 40–54. doi:10.1080/01436597.2015.976016.
  • Kier, E., 1997. Imagining war: french and British military doctrine between the wars. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Kigali principles, Available from: http://www.globalr2p.org/media/files/kp-signatories-19-december-2017.pdf [Accessed 1 Mar 2021].
  • Kjeksrud, S. and Ravndal, J.A., 2011. Emerging lessons from the United Nations mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo: military contributions to the protection of civilians. African Security Review, 20 (2), 3–16. doi:10.1080/10246029.2011.594298.
  • Kullenberg, J., 2016. Community Liaison Assistants: a bridge between peacekeepers and local populations. Forced Migration Review, 53, 44–47.
  • Lindberg Bromley, S., 2018. Introducing the UCDP peacemakers at risk dataset, sub-Saharan Africa, 1989–2009. Journal of Peace Research, 55 (1), 122–131. doi:10.1177/0022343317735882.
  • Long, A., 2016. After ISAF: partners and proxies in Afghanistan after 2014. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 27 (1), 22–38. doi:10.1080/09592318.2016.1122901.
  • Malone, D.M. and Thakur, R., 2001. UN peacekeeping: lessons learned. Global Governance, 7, 11–17. doi:10.1163/19426720-00701003
  • Mampilly, Z., 2018. Shifts in global power and UN peacekeeping performance: india’s rise and its impact on civilian protection in Africa. African Affairs, 117 (467), 171–194. doi:10.1093/afraf/ady009.
  • Martínez, R. and Durán, M., 2017. International missions as a way to improve civil–military relations: the Spanish case (1989–2015). Democracy and Security, 13 (1), 1–23. doi:10.1080/17419166.2016.1236690.
  • McGreal, C., 2000, September 9. Sierra Leone Peace force accused of Sabotage. The Guardian, Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/sep/09/sierraleone.unitednations [Accessed 25 Feb 2021].
  • McGreal, C., 2015, September 17. What’s the point of peacekeepers who don’t keep the peace?. The Guardian, Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/17/un-united-nations-peacekeepers-rwanda-bosnia [Accessed 1 Mar 2021].
  • Mirow, W., 2009. Strategic culture matters: a comparison of German and British military interventions since 1990. Vol. 38. Münster: LIT Verlag Münster.
  • Mukerji, A.K., 2013. Statement by Ambassador Mukjerji, the Permanent Representative of India to the UN, at High-Level Seminar on UN Peacekeeping – Blue Helmets: new Frontiers, ECOSOC Chambers, 19 December.
  • Murphy, R., 2017. The United Nations Mission in South Sudan and the Protection of Civilians. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 22 (3), 367–394. doi:10.1093/jcsl/krx016.
  • Nagel, J., 1998. Masculinity and nationalism: gender and sexuality in the making of nations. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 21 (2), 242–269. doi:10.1080/014198798330007.
  • O’Grady, S., 2015, September 10. How a UN drone crashed in Congo and was promptly forgotten. Foreign Policy. Available from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/09/10/how-a-u-n-drone-crashed-in-congo-and-was-promptly-forgotten [Accessed 1 Apr 2019].
  • Passmore, T.J., Shannon, M., and Hart, A.F., 2018. Rallying the troops: collective action and self-interest in UN peacekeeping contributions. Journal of Peace Research, 55 (3), 366–379. doi:10.1177/0022343317731152.
  • Podder, S. and Manzillo, G., 2021. Reflection on labour hierarchies in Peacekeeping: a study on the operational experiences of military Peacekeepers. International Peacekeeping, 28 (5), 701–731. doi:10.1080/13533312.2021.1968840.
  • Polman, L., 2013. We did nothing: why the truth doesn’t always come out when the UN goes in. London: Penguin UK.
  • Pomarède, J., 2020. Archipelagos of death: the assemblage of population-centric war in Afghanistan. Defence Studies, 20 (3), 202–223. doi:10.1080/14702436.2020.1776614.
  • Raghavan, S., 2013. In Volatile Congo: a new UN force with teeth. The Washington Post, November 3.
  • Raghavan, S. 2016. When Indian troops entered Congo 55 years ago. 19 September. Livemint. online at https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/9D5XT497AEYYluFn3moa2H/When-Indian-troops-entered-Congo-55-years-ago.html [Accessed 12 August].
  • Rajagopalan, R., 2008. Fighting like a Guerrilla: the Indian Army and counterinsurgency. New Delhi: Routledge India.
  • Ramachandran, T., 2014, October 30. India death toll highest in UN peacekeeping operations. The Hindu.
  • Reno, W., 2001. The failure of peacekeeping in Sierra Leone. Current History, 100 (646), 219–225. doi:10.1525/curh.2001.100.646.219.
  • Rhoads, E.P., 2016. Taking sides in peacekeeping: impartiality and the future of the United Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Rikhye, I.J., 2002. Trumpets and Tumults: the memoirs of a peacekeeper. New Delhi: Manohar.
  • Rodriguez, M. and Kinne, B.J., 2019. Blue helmets, red flags: institutional, societal, and military determinants of peacekeeping abuses. International Studies Quarterly, 63 (3), 626–640. doi:10.1093/isq/sqz020.
  • Routray, B.P., 2010. North-East: minimal gains of counter-insurgency operations. In: D.S. Chandran and P.R. Chari, eds. Armed conflicts in South Asia 2009: continuing violence, failing peace processes. New Delhi/Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 125–149.
  • Roy, K., 2010. The Armed Forces of Independent India: 1947-2006. New Delhi: Manohar.
  • Rubinstein, R.A., 2005. Intervention and culture: an anthropological approach to peace operations. Security Dialogue, 36 (4), 527–544. doi:10.1177/0967010605060454.
  • Ruffa, C., 2014. What peacekeepers think and do: an exploratory study of French, Ghanaian, Italian, and South Korean armies in the United Nations interim force in Lebanon. Armed Forces & Society, 40 (2), 199–225. doi:10.1177/0095327X12468856.
  • Ruffa, C., 2017. Military cultures and force employment in peace operations. Security Studies, 26 (3), 391–422. doi:10.1080/09636412.2017.1306393.
  • Ruffa, C. and Soeters, J., 2014. Cross-National research in the military: comparing operational styles. In: J. Soeters, P.M. Shields, and S. Rietjens, eds. Routledge handbook of research methods in military studies. New York: Routledge, pp. 236–247.
  • Saideman, S.M. and Auerswald, D.P., 2012. Comparing caveats: understanding the sources of national restrictions upon NATO’s mission in Afghanistan. International Studies Quarterly, 56 (1), 67–84. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00700.x.
  • Sengupta, S., 2016, July 13. What can the United Nations do when its troops can’t or won’t protect civilians. The New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/world/africa/un-peacekeepers-south-sudan-massacre.html [Accessed 1 Nov 2021].
  • Shekatkar, D.B., 2009. India’s counterinsurgency campaign in Nagaland. In: S. Ganguly and D.P. Fidler, eds. India and counterinsurgency: lessons learned. London/New York: Routledge, pp. 9–27.
  • Singh, J.J., 2012. A Soldier’s general: an autobiography. New Delhi: HarperCollins.
  • Smith, R., 2006. The utility of force: the art of war in the modern world. 2005, reprint. London: Penguin.
  • Sotomayor, A.C., 2014. The myth of the democratic peacekeeper: civil-military relations and the United Nations. Baltimore, Maryland, United States: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Spearin, C., 2011. UN peacekeeping and the international private military and security industry. International Peacekeeping, 18 (2), 196–209. doi:10.1080/13533312.2010.546099.
  • The Economic Times, 2018, May 30. Highest UN peacekeeper deaths in last 70 years from India. Available from: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/highest-un-peacekeeper-deaths-in-last-70-years-from-india/articleshow/64380845.cms?from=mdr [Accessed 12 Jan 2022].
  • Thorat, S.P.P., 1986. From Reveille to retreat. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
  • Tripodi, P., 2001. Peacekeeping: let the conscripts do the job. Security Dialogue, 32 (2), 155–168. doi:10.1177/0967010601032002003.
  • Tripodi, P., 2006. Peacekeepers, moral autonomy and the use of force. Journal of Military Ethics, 5 (3), 214–232. doi:10.1080/15027570600913338.
  • Tripodi, C., 2020. The unknown enemy: counterinsurgency and the illusion of control. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tull, D.M., 2018. The limits and unintended consequences of UN peace enforcement: the force intervention brigade in the DR Congo. International Peacekeeping, 25 (2), 167–190. doi:10.1080/13533312.2017.1360139.
  • UN, 2016. Executive summary of the UN Headquarters Board of Inquiry Report on the circumstances of the clashes that occurred at the UN PoC site in Malakal South Sudan 17-18 Feb 2016, August 2016.
  • UN, 2019. The Protection of Civilians in UN Peackeeping. Department of Peace Operations’. Availabl from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/DPO-Policy-on-The-Protection-of-Civilians-in-United-Nations-Peacekeeping.pdf [Accessed 1 Mar 2021].
  • UNSC, 2013. The Situation in the DRC. Resolution 2098.
  • Van de Bildt, J., 2015, March 21. Srebrenica: a Dutch National Trauma. Peace, Conflict & Development, 1 (21) , 115–145.
  • Van der Meulen, J. and Soeters, J., 2005. Considering casualties: risk and loss during peacekeeping and warmaking. Armed Forces & Society, 31 (4), 483–486. doi:10.1177/0095327X0503100402.
  • Van der Meulen, J. and Soeters, J., 2005. Considering casualties: Risk and loss during peacekeeping and warmaking. Armed Forces & Society, 31 (4), 483–486. doi:10.1177/0095327X0503100402.
  • Yalçınkaya, H. and Özer, Y., 2017. Another lesson learned in Afghanistan: the concept of cultural intelligence. International Peacekeeping, 24 (3), 434–460. doi:10.1080/13533312.2016.1244485.