Radicalisation in competitive authoritarian contexts: visualising refugees with DIY media

REFERENCES

• Aistrope, Tim. 2016. “Social Media and Counterterrorism Strategy.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 70 (2): 121–138. doi:10.1080/10357718.2015.1113230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akcapar, Sebnem Koser, and Dogus Simsek. 2018. “The Politics of Syrian Refugees in Turkey: A Question of Inclusion and Exclusion Through Citizenship.” Social Inclusion 6 (1): 176–187. doi:10.17645/si.v6i1.1323.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akça, İsmet. 2018. “The Restructuring of Civil-Military Relations During the AKP Period.” Confluences Mediterranee 107 (4): 59–71. https://doi.org/10.3917/come.107.0059. https://www.cairn.info/revue-confluences-mediterranee-2018-4-page-59.htm?ref=doi.
   Google Scholar
• Akhrarkhodjaeva, Nozima. 2017. Instrumentalisation of Mass Media in Electoral Authoritarian Regimes: Evidence from Russia’s Presidential Election Campaigns of 2000 and 2008. Stuttgart: ibidem Press.
   Google Scholar
• Alam, Zainab B. 2020. “Do-It-Yourself Activism in Pakistan: The Fatal Celebrity of Qandeel Baloch.” Perspectives on Politics 18 (1): 76–90. doi:10.1017/S1537592719002408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akser, Murat. 2018. “News Media Consolidation and Censorship in Turkey: From Liberal Ideals to Corporatist Realities.” Mediterranean Quarterly 29 (3): 78–97. https://doi.org/10.1215/10474552-7003180. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/704547.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altınordu, Ateş. 2017. “A Midsummer Night’s Coup: Performance and Power in Turkey’s July 15 Coup Attempt.” Qualitative Sociology 40 (2): 139–164. doi:10.1007/s11133-017-9354-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arıkan, Gökhan. 2016. “Seviyor Musun Beni? İdeolojinin Gündelikleşmesi Olarak Ahsen TV Röportajları.” Moment Dergi 3 (1): 48–63. https://doi.org/10.17572/mj2016.1.4863.
   Google Scholar
• Askanius, Tina. 2016. “Online Video Activism and Political Mash-up Genres.” Jomec Journal (4): 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Atacan, F. 2005. “Explaining Religious Politics at the Crossroad: AKP-SP.” Turkish Studies 6 (2): 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683840500119510.
   Google Scholar
• Baban, Feyzi, Suzan Ilcan, and Kim Rygiel. 2017. “Syrian Refugees in Turkey: Pathways to Precarity, Differential Inclusion, and Negotiated Citizenship Rights.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 43 (1): 41–57. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2016.1192996.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balkılıç, Özgür, and Fatma Armağan Teke Lloyd. 2020. “Does Islamic Inclusion of Syrians Represent a Real Challenge to Europe’s Security Approach?: Dilemmas of the AKP’s Syrian Refugee Discourse.” Turkish Studies 0 (0): 1–23. doi:10.1080/14683849.2020.1774372.
   Google Scholar
• Bleiker, Roland, ed. 2018. Visual Global Politics. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bloomberg.Com. 2021. “Hungary, With Highest Covid Death Rate, Says Virus Peaked.” April 20, 2021. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-20/hungary-with-highest-covid-death-rate-says-virus-has-peaked.
   Google Scholar
• Boukala, Salomi, and Dimitra Dimitrakopoulou. 2018. “Absurdity and the ‘Blame Game’ Within the Schengen Area: Analyzing Greek (Social) Media Discourses on the Refugee Crisis.” Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 16 (1–2): 179–197. doi:10.1080/15562948.2017.1303560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess, Jean, and Joshua Green. 2018. YouTube: Online Video and Participatory Culture. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Curtis, Neal. 2010. The Pictorial Turn. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Çınar, Menderes. 2006. “‪Turkey’s Transformation Under the AKP Rule.” The Muslim World 96 (3): 469–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.2006.00138.x. https://scholar.google.com.tr/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=Q2XDXSEAAAAJ&cstart=20&pagesize=80&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=Q2XDXSEAAAAJ:Se3iqnhoufwC.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale, Gareth, and Adam Fabry. 2018. “Neoliberalism in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union.” In The Sage Handbook of Neoliberalism, edited by Damien Cahill, David Primrose, Martijn Konings, and Melinda Cooper, 234–247. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Dikici Bilgin, Hasret. 2008. “Foreign Policy Orientation of Turkey’s pro-Islamist Parties: A Comparative Study of the AKP and Refah.” Turkish Studies 9 (3): 407–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683840802267363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dikici Bilgin, Hasret, and Emre Erdoğan. 2018. “Obscurities of a Referendum Foretold: The 2017 Constitutional Amendments in Turkey.” Review of Middle East Studies 52 (1): 29–42. doi:10.1017/rms.2018.9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dingley, James, and Sean Herman. 2017. “Terrorism, Radicalisation and Moral Panics: Media and Academic Analysis and Reporting of 2016 and 2017 ‘Terrorism’.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 28 (6): 996–1013. doi:10.1080/09592318.2017.1374597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doğan, Sevgi, and Ervjola Selenica. 2022. “Authoritarianism and Academic Freedom in Neoliberal Turkey.” Globalisation, Societies and Education 20 (2): 163–177. doi:10.1080/14767724.2021.1899801.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Efegil, E. 2011. “Analysis of the AKP Government’s Policy Toward the Kurdish Issue.” Turkish Studies 12 (1): 27–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2011.563938.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehrkamp, Patricia. 2010. “The Limits of Multicultural Tolerance? Liberal Democracy and Media Portrayals of Muslim Migrant Women in Germany.” Space and Polity 14 (1): 13–32. doi:10.1080/13562571003737718.
   Google Scholar
• Erdoğan, M. Murat. 2020. “Suriyeliler Barometresi 2019: Suriyeliler Ile Uyum İçinde Yaşamın Çerçevesi.” UNHCR. www.unhcr.org›sites›2020/09›SB2019-TR-04092020.
   Google Scholar
• Erdoğan, Emre, and Pınar Uyan-Semerci. 2018. “Dimensions of Polarization in Turkey.” Istanbul Bilgi University Center for Migration Research. https://goc.bilgi.edu.tr/media/uploads/2018/02/06/dimensions-of-polarizationshortfindings_DNzdZml.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Gall, Lydia. 2016. Hungary's war on refugees. Human Rights Watch (Online). https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/09/16/hungarys-war-refugees.
   Google Scholar
• Global Media Insight. 2023. “YouTube Users Statistics 2023.” https://globainsight.com/blog/youtube-users-statistics/.
   Google Scholar
• Gorman, Cynthia S, and Karen Culcasi. 2021. “Invasion and Colonization: Islamophobia and Anti-Refugee Sentiment in West Virginia.” Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space 39 (1): 168–183. doi:10.1177/2399654420943897.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Göksel, Gülay Uğur. 2018. Integration of Immigrants and the Theory of Recognition: Just Integration. International Political Theory. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65843-8_5.
   Google Scholar
• Gyollai, Daniel, and Umut Korkut. 2020. "Reception Policies, Practices and Responses: Hungary Country Report”, Working Paper 2020/43, Glasgow: Glasgow Caledonian University.
   Google Scholar
• Hartley, John. 2002. Uses of Television. Florence: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Hoddie, Matthew. 2006. “Minorities in the Official Media: Determinants of State Attention to Ethnic Minorities in the People’s Republic of China.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 11 (4): 3–21. doi:10.1177/1081180X06293728.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvath, Gyorgyi. 2021. “Internet Memes and a Female ‘Arab Spring’: Mobilising Online for the Criminalisation of Domestic Abuse in Hungary in 2012-13.” Feminist Media Studies 0 (0): 1–17. doi:10.1080/14680777.2021.2010787.
   Google Scholar
• “Hungary: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report”. 2021. https://freedomhouse.org/country/hungary/freedom-world/2021.
   Google Scholar
• İnsel, Ahmet. 2003. “The AKP and Normalizing Democracy in Turkey.” The South Atlantic Quarterly 102 (2–3): 293–308. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-102-2-3-293. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/43714.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakaya Polat, Rabia. 2018. “Religious Solidarity, Historical Mission and Moral Superiority: Construction of External and Internal ‘Others’ in AKP’s Discourses on Syrian Refugees in Turkey.” Critical Discourse Studies 15 (5): 500–516. doi:10.1080/17405904.2018.1500925.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakuş, Mine, and Filiz Göktuna Yaylacı. 2015. “Perceptions and Newspaper Coverage of Syrian Refugees in Turkey.” Migration Letters 12 (3): 238–250. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v12i3.277. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=478384.
   Google Scholar
• Karpf, David. 2010. “Online Political Mobilization from the Advocacy Group’s Perspective: Looking Beyond Clicktivism.” Policy & Internet 2 (4): 7–41. doi:10.2202/1944-2866.1098.
   Google Scholar
• Kaya, Ayhan. 2015. “Islamisation of Turkey Under the AKP Rule: Empowering Family, Faith and Charity.” South European Society and Politics 20 (1): 47–69. doi:10.1080/13608746.2014.979031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaya, Ayhan. 2020. “Migration as a Leverage Tool in International Relations: Turkey as a Case Study.” Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 17 (68): 21–39. doi:10.33458/uidergisi.856870.
   Google Scholar
• Kaya, Raşit, and Barış Çakmur. 2010. “Politics and the Mass Media in Turkey.” Turkish Studies 11 (4): 521–537. doi:10.1080/14683849.2010.540112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilic, Onur. 2021. “‘Every Parade of Ours Is a Pride Parade’: Exploring LGBTI+ Digital Activism in Turkey.” Sexualities, December, 13634607211060510. doi:10.1177/13634607211060510.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korkut, Umut. 2014. “The Migration Myth in the Absence of Immigrants: How Does the Conservative Right in Hungary and Turkey Grapple with Immigration?” Comparative European Politics 12 (6): 620–36. doi:10.1057/cep.2014.23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korkut, Umut. 2016. “Pragmatism, Moral Responsibility or Policy Change: The Syrian Refugee Crisis and Selective Humanitarianism in the Turkish Refugee Regime.” Comparative Migration Studies 4 (1): 2. doi:10.1186/s40878-015-0020-9.
   Google Scholar
• Lawlor, Andrea, and Erin Tolley. 2017. “Deciding Who’s Legitimate: News Media Framing of Immigrants and Refugees.” International Journal of Communication 11 (0): 25.
   Google Scholar
• Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan Way. 2002. “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2): 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0026. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jod/summary/v013/13.2levitsky.html.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorch, Jasmin, and Bettina Bunk. 2017. “Using Civil Society as an Authoritarian Legitimation Strategy: Algeria and Mozambique in Comparative Perspective.” Democratization 24 (6): 987–1005. doi:10.1080/13510347.2016.1256285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lukács, Gabriella. 2021. “Internet Memes as Protest Media in Populist Hungary.” Visual Anthropology Review 37 (1): 52–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/var.12232
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madenoğlu, Dila Naz. 2016. “Bir Propaganda Aracı Olarak İnternet Yayıncılığı: Ahsen TV Örneği.” Intermedia International E-Journal 3 (3): 127–143. https://doi.org/10.21645/intermedia.2016319252
   Google Scholar
• McGarry, Aidan, and James M. Jasper. 2015. The Identity Dilemma: Social Movements and Collective Identity. Philedelphia: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, WJ Thomas. 1995. Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moffitt, Benjamin. 2022. “How Do Populists Visually Represent ‘The People’? A Systematic Comparative Visual Content Analysis of Donald Trump and Bernie Sanders’ Instagram Accounts.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 0 (0): 1–26. doi:10.1177/19401612221100418.
   Google Scholar
• Ozduzen, Ozge, and Umut Korkut. 2020. “Post-‘Refugee Crisis’ Social Media: The Unbearable Lightness of Sharing Racist Posts.” Discover Society (blog). September 2, 2020. https://archive.discoversociety.org/2020/09/02/post-refugee-crisis-social-media-the-unbearable-lightness-of-sharing-racist-posts/.
   Google Scholar
• Ozduzen, Ozge, Umut Korkut, and Cansu Ozduzen. 2020. “‘Refugees Are Not Welcome’: Digital Racism, Online Place-Making and the Evolving Categorization of Syrians in Turkey.” New Media & Society, September. doi:10.1177/1461444820956341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Özdüzen, Özge. 2022. “DIY Media and Urban Citizenship: Intersectional Post-Occupy Media Activism in Turkey.” In Authoritarian Neoliberalism and Resistance in Turkey: Construction, Consolidation, and Contestation, edited by İmren Borsuk, Pınar Dinç, Sinem Kavak, and Pınar Sayan, 191–210. Singapore: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4213-5_9.
   Google Scholar
• Özerim, Mehmet Gökay, and Juliette Tolay. 2021. “Discussing the Populist Features of Anti-Refugee Discourses on Social Media: An Anti-Syrian Hashtag in Turkish Twitter.” Journal of Refugee Studies 34 (1): 204–218. doi:10.1093/jrs/feaa022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearce, Katy E., and Farid Guliyev. 2015. “Digital Knives Are Still Knives: The Affordances of Social Media for a Repressed Opposition Against an Entrenched Authoritarian Regime in Azerbaijan.” In The Routledge Companion to Social Media and Politics, edited by Axel Bruns, Gunn Enli, Eli Skogerbo, Anders Larsson, and Christian Christensen, 235–247. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Pickerill, Jenny. 2010. Cyberprotest: Environmental Activism Online. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rahmanian, Emad. 2021. “The Enemy Narrative: How Authoritarian Regimes Use Twitter to Oppress Public Opinion, Evidence from Flight PS752.” The Journal of Social Media in Society 10 (2): 344–372.
   Google Scholar
• Resnick, Sydni. 2021. “The CNN Effect and State Violence Against Muslim Ethnic Minorities.” International Political Economy Theses, May. https://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/ipe_theses/28.
   Google Scholar
• Sakr, Naomi. 2016. “Media ‘Globalisation’ as Survival Strategy for Authoritarian Regimes in the Arab Middle East.” In Global Media and National Policies: The Return of the State, edited by Terry Flew, Petros Iosifidis, and Jeanette Steemers, 173–189. Palgrave Global Media Policy and Business. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. doi:10.1057/9781137493958_11.
   Google Scholar
• Saraçoğlu, Cenk, and Daniele Belanger. 2019. “Syrian Refugees and Turkey: Whose ‘Crisis’?” In The Oxford Handbook of Migration Crises, edited by Dr Cecilia Menjívar, Dr Marie Ruiz, and Dr Immanuel Ness, 279–296. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Soest, Christian von, and Julia Grauvogel. 2017. “Identity, Procedures and Performance: How Authoritarian Regimes Legitimize Their Rule.” Contemporary Politics 23 (3): 287–305. doi:10.1080/13569775.2017.1304319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stockmann, Daniela, and Mary E. Gallagher. 2011. “Remote Control: How the Media Sustain Authoritarian Rule in China.” Comparative Political Studies 44 (4): 436–467. doi:10.1177/0010414010394773.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Şen, A. Fulya, and Y. Furkan Şen. 2016. “Online Environmental Activism in Turkey: The Case Study of ‘The Right to Water’.” Global Bioethics 27 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/11287462.2015.1137184.
   Google Scholar
• Şenol Sert, Deniz, and Didem Danış. 2021. “Framing Syrians in Turkey: State Control and No Crisis Discourse.” International Migration 59 (1): 197–214. doi:10.1111/imig.12753.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilly, Charles, and Sidney G. Tarrow. 2015. Contentious Politics. Second ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Trantidis, Aris. 2022. “Building an Authoritarian Regime: Strategies for Autocratisation and Resistance in Belarus and Slovakia.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 24 (1): 113–135. doi:10.1177/1369148120978964.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• “Turkey: Journalism Is Not a Crime”. 2017. “Amnesty International.” February 1, 2017. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/02/free-turkey-media/.
   Google Scholar
• Wigger, Iris. 2019. “Anti-Muslim Racism and the Racialisation of Sexual Violence: ‘Intersectional Stereotyping’ in Mass Media Representations of Male Muslim Migrants in Germany.” Culture and Religion 20 (3): 248–271. doi:10.1080/14755610.2019.1658609.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkin, Peter, Lina Dencik, and Éva Bognár. 2015. “Digital Activism and Hungarian Media Reform: The Case of Milla.” European Journal of Communication 30 (6): 682–697. doi:10.1177/0267323115595528.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, Janice Hua. 2014. “Communicating the Right to Know: Social Media in the Do-It-Yourself Air Quality Testing Campaign in Chinese Cities.” International Journal of Communication 8 (May): 1374–1393. doi:10.1932/8036/20140005.
   Google Scholar
• Yesilada, Birol, and Barry Rubin. 2013. Islamization of Turkey Under the AKP Rule. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar