Advanced search
Publication Cover
Journal of Dual Diagnosis
research and practice in substance abuse comorbidity
Volume 20, 2024 - Issue 1: Trauma & Substance Use Disorder/Alcohol Use Disorder (Part 2)
Submit an article Journal homepage
349
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

A Harm Reduction Framework for Integrated Treatment of Co-Occurring Opioid Use Disorder and Trauma-Related Disorders

Benjamin S. Israela Division of Addiction Research and Treatment, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USACorrespondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-4103-5456View further author information
, MDORCID Icon,
Annabelle M. Belchera Division of Addiction Research and Treatment, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USAORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-4194-0181View further author information
, PhDORCID Icon &
Julian D. Fordb Department of Psychiatry, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USAORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-7923-0658View further author information
, PhDORCID Icon
Pages 52-85 | Published online: 02 Jan 2024

References

  • Alexander, A. A., Welsh, E., & Glassmire, D. M. (2016). Underdiagnosing posttraumatic stress disorder in a state hospital. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 16(5), 448–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228932.2016.1234142
  • Alexander, M. (2011). The new jim crow. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 9, 7.
  • Alho, H., Dematteis, M., Lembo, D., Maremmani, I., Roncero, C., & Somaini, L. (2020). Opioid-related deaths in Europe: Strategies for a comprehensive approach to address a major public health concern. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 76, 102616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.102616
  • Allwood, M. A., Ford, J. D., & Levendosky, A. (2021). Introduction to the Special Issue: Disproportionate trauma, stress, and adversities as a pathway to health disparities among disenfranchised groups globally. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(5), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22743
  • Allwood, M. A., Ghafoori, B., Salgado, C., Slobodin, O., Kreither, J., Waelde, L. C., Larrondo, P., & Ramos, N. (2022). Identity‐based hate and violence as trauma: Current research, clinical implications, and advocacy in a globally connected world. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 35(2), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22748
  • Al-Saffar, S., Borgå, P., & Hällström, T. (2002). Long-term consequences of unrecognised PTSD in general outpatient psychiatry. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 37(12), 580–585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-002-0586-z
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
  • Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, Sh, R., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4
  • Anvari, M. S., Kleinman, M. B., Massey, E. C., Bradley, V. D., Felton, J. W., Belcher, A. M., & Magidson, J. F. (2022). In their mind, they always felt less than”: The role of peers in shifting stigma as a barrier to opioid use disorder treatment retention. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 138, 108721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2022.108721
  • Austin, A. E., & Short, N. A. (2020). Sexual violence, mental health, and prescription opioid use and misuse. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(6), 818–827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.06.019
  • Badour, C. L., Flores, J., Hood, C. O., Jones, A. C., Brake, C. A., Tipsword, J. M., Penn, C. J., & McCann, J. P. (2023). Concurrent and proximal associations among PTSD symptoms, prescription opioid use, and co-use of other substances: Results from a daily monitoring study. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 15(3), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001303
  • Bailey, T. D., & Brown, L. S. (2020). Complex trauma: Missed and misdiagnosis in forensic evaluations. Psychological Injury and Law, 13(2), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-020-09383-w
  • Bart, G. (2012). Maintenance medication for opiate addiction: The foundation of recovery. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 31(3), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2012.694598
  • Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1990). Manual for the Beck anxiety inventory. Psychological Corporation.
  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. Psychological Corporation.
  • Bell, C. C., Jackson, W. M., & Bell, B. H. (2015). Misdiagnosis of African-Americans with Psychiatric Issues – Part II. Journal of the National Medical Association, 107(3), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-9684(15)30049-3
  • Benincasa, C. A., O’Connor, S., Pieroazio, N. A., Wentling, S. S., Bethany Brand, L., Israel, Benjamin, S., & Scheilke, H. (2023). Changes in adaptive functioning, dissociation, and emotion regulation following inpatient psychiatric hospitalization on a specialized trauma unit. Pending Review.
  • Binswanger, I. A., Blatchford, P. J., Lindsay, R. G., & Stern, M. F. (2011). Risk factors for all-cause, overdose and early deaths after release from prison in Washington state. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 117(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.029
  • Biondi, B. E., Zheng, X., Frank, C. A., Petrakis, I., & Springer, S. A. (2020). A literature review examining primary outcomes of medication treatment studies for opioid use disorder: What outcome should be used to measure opioid treatment success? The American Journal on Addictions, 29(4), 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.13051
  • Blank, A. S., Jr. (1985). The unconscious flashback to the war in Viet Nam veterans: Clinical mystery, legal defense, and community problems. In Trauma of war: Stress and recovery in Viet Nam veterans. American Psychiatric Press.
  • Bonfils, K. A., Lysaker, P. H., Yanos, P. T., Siegel, A., Leonhardt, B. L., James, A. V., Brustuen, B., Luedtke, B., & Davis, L. W. (2018). Self-stigma in PTSD: Prevalence and correlates. Psychiatry Research, 265, 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.04.004
  • Bovin, M. J., Kimerling, R., Weathers, F. W., Prins, A., Marx, B. P., Post, E. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2021). Diagnostic accuracy and acceptability of the primary care posttraumatic stress disorder screen for the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (fifth edition) among US veterans. JAMA Network Open, 4(2), e2036733. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.36733
  • Boyer, S. M., Caplan, J. E., & Edwards, L. K. (2022). Trauma-related dissociation and the dissociative disorders: Neglected symptoms with severe public health consequences. Delaware Journal of Public Health, 8(2), 78–84. https://doi.org/10.32481/djph.2022.05.010
  • Brady, S., Rierdan, J., Penk, W., Losardo, M., & Meschede, T. (2003). Post-traumatic stress disorder in adults with serious mental illness and substance abuse. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 4(4), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v04n04_06
  • Brand, B. L., McNary, S. W., Myrick, A. C., Classen, C. C., Lanius, R., Loewenstein, R. J., Pain, C., & Putnam, F. W. (2013). A longitudinal naturalistic study of patients with dissociative disorders treated by community clinicians. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(4), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027654
  • Brand, B. L., Myrick, A. C., Loewenstein, R. J., Classen, C. C., Lanius, R., McNary, S. W., Pain, C., & Putnam, F. W. (2012). A survey of practices and recommended treatment interventions among expert therapists treating patients with dissociative identity disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(5), 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026487
  • Brand, B. L., Schielke, H. J., Putnam, K. T., Putnam, F. W., Loewenstein, R. J., Myrick, A., Jepsen, E. K. K., Langeland, W., Steele, K., Classen, C. C., & Lanius, R. A. (2019). An online educational program for individuals with dissociative disorders and their clinicians: 1-year and 2-year follow-up: online intervention for dissociative disorders. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(1), 156–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22370
  • Brenner, L., Köllner, V., & Bachem, R. (2019). Symptom burden and work-related impairment among patients with PTSD and complex PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1694766. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1694766
  • Brorson, H. H., Ajo Arnevik, E., Rand-Hendriksen, K., & Duckert, F. (2013). Drop-out from addiction treatment: A systematic review of risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1010–1024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.07.007
  • Bukten, A., Skurtveit, S., Waal, H., & Clausen, T. (2014). Factors associated with dropout among patients in opioid maintenance treatment (OMT) and predictors of re-entry. A national registry-based study. Addictive Behaviors, 39(10), 1504–1509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.05.007
  • Burback, L., Brémault-Phillips, S., Nijdam, M. J., McFarlane, A., & Vermetten, E. (2023). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-art review. Current Neuropharmacology, 21. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X21666230428091433
  • Caplehorn, J. R. M., Dalton, M. Y. N. S., Haldar, F., Petrenas, A.-M., & Nisbet, J. G. (1996). Methadone maintenance and addicts’ risk of fatal heroin overdose. Substance Use & Misuse, 31(2), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089609045806
  • Carey, P. D., Stein, D. J., Zungu-Dirwayi, N., & Seedat, S. (2003). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban Xhosa primary care population: Prevalence, comorbidity, and service use patterns. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191(4), 230–236. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NMD.0000061143.66146.A8
  • Carlson, E. B., Field, N. P., Ruzek, J. I., Bryant, R. A., Dalenberg, C. J., Keane, T. M., & Spain, D. A. (2016). Advantages and psychometric validation of proximal intensive assessments of patient-reported outcomes collected in daily life. Quality of Life Research : An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care and Rehabilitation: International of of Aspects Treatmentcare and, 25(3), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-015-1170-9
  • Carlson, E. B., Waelde, L. C., Palmieri, P. A., Macia, K. S., Smith, S. R., & McDade-Montez, E. (2018). Development and validation of the dissociative symptoms scale. Assessment, 25(1), 84–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116645904
  • Carroll, K. M., & Weiss, R. D. (2017). The role of behavioral interventions in buprenorphine maintenance treatment: A review. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(8), 738–747. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070792
  • Cascardi, M., Mueser, K. T., DeGiralomo, J., & Murrin, M. (1996). Physical aggression against psychiatric inpatients by family members and partners. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 47(5), 531–533. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.47.5.531
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Preventing adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Leveraging the best available evidence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www-cdc-gov.proxy-hs.researchport.umd.edu/violenceprevention/aces/prevention.html
  • Champine, R. B., Matlin, S., Strambler, M. J., & Tebes, J. K. (2018). Trauma-informed family practices: Toward integrated and evidence-based approaches. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(9), 2732–2743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1118-0
  • Charney, M. E., Hellberg, S. N., Bui, E., & Simon, N. M. (2018). Evidenced-based treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: An updated review of validated psychotherapeutic and pharmacological approaches. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 26(3), 99–115.https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000186
  • Chefetz, R. (2021). Attackments: Subjugation, shame, and the attachment to painful affects and objects. In Shame matters, 60–76. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003175612
  • Cicero, T. J., & Ellis, M. S. (2017). The prescription opioid epidemic: A review of qualitative studies on the progression from initial use to abuse. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 19(3), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2017.19.3/tcicero
  • Cloitre, M., Garvert, D. W., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., & Maercker, A. (2013). Evidence for proposed ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD: A latent profile analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4(1), 20706. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.20706
  • Cloitre, M., Petkova, E., Wang, J., & Lu, F. (2012). An examination of the influence of a sequential treatment on the course and impact of dissociation among women with PTSD related childhood abuse. Depression and Anxiety, 29(8), 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21920
  • Coffey, S. F., Schumacher, J. A., Nosen, E., Littlefield, A. K., Henslee, A. M., Lappen, A., & Stasiewicz, P. R. (2016). Trauma-focused exposure therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in alcohol and drug dependent patients: A randomized controlled trial. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors : Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors: Of Society Psychologists Addictive, 30(7), 778–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000201
  • Cohen, A., Vakharia, S. P., Netherland, J., & Frederique, K. (2022). How the war on drugs impacts social determinants of health beyond the criminal legal system. Annals of Medicine, 54(1), 2024–2038. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2022.2100926
  • Colledge, S., Larney, S., Peacock, A., Leung, J., Hickman, M., Grebely, J., Farrell, M., & Degenhardt, L. (2020). Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidality and self-harm among people who inject drugs: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 207, 107793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107793
  • Connors, K. J. (2018). Dissociative and complex trauma disorders in health and mental health contexts: Or why is the elephant not in the room? Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 19(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2018.1379855
  • Cooper, H. L. F., Cloud, D. H., Fanucchi, L. C., Lofwall, M., & Young, A. M. (2022). Dismantling war on drugs policies in COVID-19’s aftermath. American Journal of Public Health, 112(S1), S24–S27. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306680
  • Courtois, C. A. (2020). Therapeutic alliance and risk management. In J. D. Ford & C. A. Courtois (Eds.), Treating complex traumatic stress disorders in adults: Scientific foundations and therapeutic models (2nd ed., pp. 99–124). Guilford Press. https://www.routledge.com/Treating-Complex-Traumatic-Stress-Disorders-in-Adults-Scientific-Foundations/Ford-Courtois/p/book/9781462543625
  • Courtois, C. A., & Ford, J. D. (2013). Treatment of complex trauma: A sequenced, relationship-based approach. Guilford Press.
  • Coventry, P. A., Meader, N., Melton, H., Temple, M., Dale, H., Wright, K., Cloitre, M., Karatzias, T., Bisson, J., Roberts, N. P., Brown, J. V. E., Barbui, C., Churchill, R., Lovell, K., McMillan, D., & Gilbody, S. (2020). Psychological and pharmacological interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid mental health problems following complex traumatic events: Systematic review and component network meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine, 17(8), e1003262. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003262
  • Craine, L. S., Henson, C. E., Colliver, J. A., & MacLean, D. G. (1988). Prevalence of a history of sexual abuse among female psychiatric patients in a state hospital system. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 39(3), 300–304. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.39.3.300
  • Cronin, E., Brand, B. L., & Mattanah, J. F. (2014). The impact of the therapeutic alliance on treatment outcome in patients with dissociative disorders. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 22676. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.22676
  • Cusack, K. J., Grubaugh, A. L., Knapp, R. G., & Frueh, B. C. (2006). Unrecognized trauma and PTSD among public mental health consumers with chronic and severe mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal, 42(5), 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-006-9049-4
  • da Silva, H. C., Furtado da Rosa, M. M., Berger, W., Luz, M. P., Mendlowicz, M., Coutinho, E. S. F., Portella, C. M., Marques, P. I. S., Mograbi, D. C., Figueira, I., & Ventura, P. (2019). PTSD in mental health outpatient settings: Highly prevalent and under-recognized. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil : 1999):), 41(3), 213–217. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2017-0025
  • Dahlby, L., & Kerr, T. (2020). PTSD and opioid use: Implications for intervention and policy. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 15(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-020-00264-8
  • Dalenberg, C. J., Brand, B. L., Gleaves, D. H., Dorahy, M. J., Loewenstein, R. J., Cardeña, E., Frewen, P. A., Carlson, E. B., & Spiegel, D. (2012). Evaluation of the evidence for the trauma and fantasy models of dissociation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(3), 550–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027447
  • Dalenberg, C. J., Brand, B. L., Loewenstein, R. J., Frewen, P. A., & Spiegel, D. (2020). Inviting scientific discourse on traumatic dissociation: Progress made and obstacles to further resolution. Psychological Injury and Law, 13(2), 135–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-020-09376-9
  • DeBeck, K., Kerr, T., Bird, L., Zhang, R., Marsh, D., Tyndall, M., Montaner, J., & Wood, E. (2011). Injection drug use cessation and use of North America’s first medically supervised safer injecting facility. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 113(2-3), 172–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.07.023
  • DePrince, A. P., Huntjens, R. J. C., & Dorahy, M. J. (2015). Alienation appraisals distinguish adults diagnosed with DID from PTSD. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 7(6), 578–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000069
  • Dolbin-MacNab, M. L., & O'Connell, L. M. (2021). Grandfamilies and the opioid epidemic: A systemic perspective and future priorities. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 24(2), 207–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-021-00343-7
  • Dole, V. P., & Nyswander, M. E. (1976). Methadone maintenance treatment: A ten-year perspective. Jama: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 235(19), 2117–2119. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.235.19.2117
  • Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Chapman, D. P., Giles, W. H., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: The adverse childhood experiences study. Pediatrics, 111(3), 564–572. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.3.564
  • Duffee, J., Szilagyi, M., Forkey, H., & Kelly, E. T. (2021). Trauma-informed care in child health systems. Pediatrics, 148(2), e2021052579. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-052579
  • Dyer, K. F. W., & Corrigan, J.-P. (2021). Psychological treatments for complex PTSD: A commentary on the clinical and empirical impasse dividing unimodal and phase-oriented therapy positions. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 13(8), 869–876. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001080
  • Eckenrode, J., Campa, M., Luckey, D. W., Henderson, C. R., Cole, R., Kitzman, H., Anson, E., Sidora-Arcoleo, K., Powers, J., & Olds, D. (2010). Long-term effects of prenatal and infancy nurse home visitation on the life course of youths: 19-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.240
  • Edwards, E. J., & Noguera, P. (2022). Seeing our most vulnerable homeless students: The impact of systemic racism on the education of black homeless youth in the United States. In Systemic racism in America (pp. 112–138). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003225324
  • Elklit, A., Hyland, P., & Shevlin, M. (2014). Evidence of symptom profiles consistent with posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in different trauma samples. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 24221. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.24221
  • Elklit, A., Karstoft, K.-I., Armour, C., Feddern, D., & Christoffersen, M. (2013). Predicting criminality from child maltreatment typologies and posttraumatic stress symptoms. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4(1), 19825. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.19825
  • Elliott, D. E., Bjelajac, P., Fallot, R. D., Markoff, L. S., & Reed, B. G. (2023). Trauma-informed or trauma-denied: Principles and implementation of trauma-informed services for women. Public Health Genomicsof Psychology, 33(4), 1–477. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20063
  • Feingold, Z. R. (2021). The stigma of incarceration experience: A systematic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 27(4), 550–569. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000319
  • Fine, C. G. (1999). The tactical-integration model for the treatment of dissociative identity disorder and allied dissociative disorders. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 53(3), 361–376. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1999.53.3.361
  • Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. (2015). A revised inventory of adverse childhood experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.07.011
  • Fluyau, D., Mitra, P., Jain, A., Kailasam, V. K., & Pierre, C. G. (2022). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder in substance use disorders: A Bayesian meta-analysis. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 78(6), 931–942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-022-03303-4
  • Foote, B., Smolin, Y., Neft, D. I., & Lipschitz, D. (2008). Dissociative disorders and suicidality in psychiatric outpatients. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31815fa4e7
  • Forbes, D., Bisson, J., Monson, C., Berliner L. (Ed.). (2020). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the international society for traumatic stress studies (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
  • Ford, J. D. (2017). Complex trauma and complex PTSD. In J. Cook, S. Gold, & C. Dalenberg (Eds.), Handbook of trauma psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 322–349). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000020-000
  • Ford, J. D. (2018). Trauma memory processing in posttraumatic stress disorder psychotherapy: A unifying framework. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 31(6), 933–942. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22344
  • Ford, J. D., & Blaustein, M. E. (2013). Systemic self-regulation: A framework for trauma-informed services in residential juvenile justice programs. Journal of Family Violence, 28(7), 665–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9538-5
  • Ford, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2013). Treating complex traumatic stress disorders in children and adolescents: Scientific foundations and therapeutic models. Guilford Press.
  • Ford, J. D., & Gómez, J. M. (2015). The relationship of psychological trauma and dissociative and posttraumatic stress disorders to nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidality: A review. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16(3), 232–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2015.989563
  • Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Elhai, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Scientific and professional dimensions. Academic press.
  • Ford, J. D., Spinazzola, J., & Van Der Kolk, B. (2021). Psychiatric comorbidity of developmental trauma disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from the DTD field trial replication (DTDFT-R). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1929028. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1929028
  • Freyd, J. J. (2018, January 11). When sexual assault victims speak out, their institutions often betray them. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/when-sexual-assault-victims-speak-out-their-institutions-often-betray-them-87050
  • Fuchs-Leitner, I., Yazdi, K., Gerstgrasser, N. W., Tholen, M. G., Graffius, S.-T., Schorb, A., & Rosenleitner, J. (2021). Risk of PTSD due to the COVID-19 pandemic among patients in opioid substitution treatment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 729460. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.729460
  • Fung, H. W., Chien, W. T., Lam, S. K. K., & Ross, C. A. (2023). The relationship between dissociation and complex post-traumatic stress disorder: A scoping review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 24(5), 2966–2982. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221120835
  • Galarneau, L. R., Hilburt, J., O'Neill, Z. R., Buxton, J. A., Scheuermeyer, F. X., Dong, K., Kaczorowski, J., Orkin, A. M., Barbic, S. P., Bath, M., Moe, J., Miles, I., Tobin, D., Grier, S., Garrod, E., & Kestler, A. (2021). Experiences of people with opioid use disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study. PLOS One, 16(7), e0255396. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255396
  • Garami, J., Valikhani, A., Parkes, D., Haber, P., Mahlberg, J., Misiak, B., Frydecka, D., & Moustafa, A. A. (2019). Examining perceived stress, childhood trauma and interpersonal trauma in individuals with drug addiction. Psychological Reports, 122(2), 433–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118764918
  • Gidzgier, P. A., Bari, M., López-Atanes, M., Lotzin, A., Grundmann, J., Hiller, P., Schneider, B., & Schäfer, I. (2022). Improving care for SUD patients with complex trauma–relationships between childhood trauma, dissociation, and suicidal behavior in female patients with PTSD and SUD. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 1047274. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1047274
  • Gielen, N., Havermans, R. C., Tekelenburg, M., & Jansen, A. (2012a). Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among patients with substance use disorder: It is higher than clinicians think it is. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3(1), 17734. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.17734
  • Gillum, T. L. (2019). The intersection of intimate partner violence and poverty in Black communities. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.008
  • Goldstein, R. B., Chou, S. P., Smith, S. M., Jung, J., Zhang, H., Saha, T. D., Pickering, R. P., June Ruan, W., Huang, B., & Grant, B. F. (2015). Nosologic comparisons of DSM-IV and DSM-5 alcohol and drug use disorders: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions–III. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 76(3), 378–388. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2015.76.378
  • Gopaldas, M., Wenzel, K., Campbell, A. N., Jalali, A., Fishman, M., Rotrosen, J., Nunes, E. V., & Murphy, S. M. (2023). Impact of medication-based treatment on health care utilization among individuals with opioid use disorder. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 74(12), 1227–1233. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.20220549
  • Grossman, E. S., Hoffman, Y. S. G., Shrira, A., Kedar, M., Ben-Ezra, M., Dinnayi, M., & Zivotofsky, A. Z. (2019). Preliminary evidence linking complex-PTSD to insomnia in a sample of Yazidi genocide survivors. Psychiatry Research, 271, 161–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.044
  • Gupta, R., Levine, R. L., Cepeda, J. A., & Holtgrave, D. R. (2022). Transforming management of opioid use disorder with universal treatment. The New England Journal of Medicine, 387(15), 1341–1344. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2210121
  • Gutheil, T. G., & Gabbard, G. O. (1993). The concept of boundaries in clinical practice: Theoretical and risk-management dimensions. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(2), 188–196. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.150.2.188
  • Guzman Torres, E., Krause-Utz, A., & Sack, M. (2023). Predictors of complex PTSD: The role of trauma characteristics, dissociation, and comorbid psychopathology. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 10(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-022-00208-7
  • Hagan, H., McGough, J. P., Thiede, H., Hopkins, S., Duchin, J., & Alexander, E. R. (2000). Reduced injection frequency and increased entry and retention in drug treatment associated with needle-exchange participation in Seattle drug injectors. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 19(3), 247–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0740-5472(00)00104-5
  • Haider, M. R., Brown, M. J., Gupta, R. D., Karim, S., Olatosi, B., & Li, X. (2020). Psycho-social correlates of opioid use disorder among the US adult population: Evidence from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2015–2018. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(12), 2002–2010. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1788086
  • Hall, H. (2022). Dissociation and misdiagnosis of schizophrenia in populations experiencing chronic discrimination and social defeat. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2022.2120154
  • Han, B. H., Doran, K. M., & Krawczyk, N. (2022). National trends in substance use treatment admissions for opioid use disorder among adults experiencing homelessness. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 132, 108504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108504
  • Handelsman, L., Cochrane, K. J., Aronson, M. J., Ness, R., Rubinstein, K. J., & Kanof, P. D. (1987). Two new rating scales for opiate withdrawal. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 13(3), 293–308. https://doi.org/10.3109/00952998709001515
  • Harned, M. S., Korslund, K. E., & Linehan, M. M. (2014). A pilot randomized controlled trial of Dialectical Behavior Therapy with and without the Dialectical Behavior Therapy Prolonged Exposure protocol for suicidal and self-injuring women with borderline personality disorder and PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 55, 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.01.008
  • Harvey, M. R. (1996). An ecological view of psychological trauma and trauma recovery. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090103
  • Haslam, N., Tse, J. S. Y., & De Deyne, S. (2021). Concept creep and psychiatrization. Frontiers in Sociology, 6, 806147. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2021.806147
  • Hawk, K., & D’Onofrio, G. (2018). Time to change the way we approach opioid use disorder: A challenge to the status quo. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(9), 652–653. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-2722
  • HealthMeasures. (n.d.). PROMIS. Retrieved July 25, 2023, from https://www.healthmeasures.net/explore-measurement-systems/promis
  • Heerde, J. A., & Hemphill, S., A. (2019). Associations between individual-level characteristics and exposure to physically violent behavior among young people experiencing homelessness: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 47, 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.03.002
  • Heller, D., McCoy, K., & Cunningham, C. (2004). An invisible barrier to integrating HIV primary care with harm reduction services: philosophical clashes between the harm reduction and medical models. Public Health Reports (Washington, D.C. : 1974).: 1974), 119(1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490411900109
  • Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence. Basic Books.
  • Herman, J. (2023). Truth and repair: How trauma survivors envision justice. Basic Books.
  • Herman, J. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 377–391. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490050305
  • Herron, J. L., & Venner, K. L. (2023). A systematic review of trauma and substance use in American Indian and Alaska Native individuals: Incorporating cultural considerations. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 10(2), 603–632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01250-5
  • Hien, D. A., López-Castro, T., Fitzpatrick, S., Ruglass, L. M., Fertuck, E. A., & Melara, R. (2021). A unifying translational framework to advance treatment research for comorbid PTSD and substance use disorders. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 127, 779–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.022
  • Hooker, S. A., Sherman, M. D., Lonergan-Cullum, M., Sattler, A., Liese, B. S., Justesen, K., Nissly, T., & Levy, R. (2020). Mental health and psychosocial needs of patients being treated for opioid use disorder in a primary care residency clinic. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 11, 2150132720932017. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150132720932017
  • Horn, K. A., Pack, R. P., Trestman, R., & Lawson, G. (2018). Almost everything we need to better serve children of the opioid crisis we learned in the 80s and 90s. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00289
  • Howarth, E. J., O'Connor, D. B., Panagioti, M., Hodkinson, A., Wilding, S., & Johnson, J. (2020). Are stressful life events prospectively associated with increased suicidal ideation and behaviour? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 266, 731–742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.171
  • Howgego, I. M., Owen, C., Meldrum, L., Yellowlees, P., Dark, F., & Parslow, R. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder: An exploratory study examining rates of trauma and PTSD and its effect on client outcomes in community mental health. BMC Psychiatry, 5(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-5-21
  • Hunter, K., Park, J. N., Allen, S. T., Chaulk, P., Frost, T., Weir, B. W., & Sherman, S. G. (2018). Safe and unsafe spaces: Non-fatal overdose, arrest, and receptive syringe sharing among people who inject drugs in public and semi-public spaces in Baltimore City. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 57, 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.03.026
  • Hyland, P., Ceannt, R., Daccache, F., Abou Daher, R., Sleiman, J., Gilmore, B., Byrne, S., Shevlin, M., Murphy, J., & Vallières, F. (2018). Are posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex-PTSD distinguishable within a treatment-seeking sample of Syrian refugees living in Lebanon? Global Mental Health, 5, e14. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2018.2
  • Hyland, P., Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., McElroy, E., Ben-Ezra, M., Cloitre, M., & Brewin, C. R. (2021). Does requiring trauma exposure affect rates of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD? Implications for DSM–5. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 13(2), 133–141. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000908
  • Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Elklit, A., Murphy, J., Vallières, F., Garvert, D. W., & Cloitre, M. (2017). An assessment of the construct validity of the ICD-11 proposal for complex posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000114
  • Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Cloitre, M., & Karatzias, T. (2020). The relationship between ICD-11 PTSD, complex PTSD and dissociative experiences. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 21(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2019.1675113
  • Iheanacho, T., Stefanovics, E., & Rosenheck, R. (2018). Opioid use disorder and homelessness in the Veterans Health Administration: The challenge of multimorbidity. Journal of Opioid Management, 14(3), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.5055/jom.2018.0447
  • Imel, Z. E., Laska, K., Jakupcak, M., & Simpson, T. L. (2013). Meta-analysis of dropout in treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(3), 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031474
  • Institute of Medicine. (1995). Federal regulation of methadone treatment (R. A. Rettig & A. Yarmolinsky, Eds.). National Academies Press (US). https://doi.org/10.17226/4899
  • Israel, B., Wiprovnick, A. E., Belcher, A. M., Kleinman, M. B., Ramprashad, A., Spaderna, M., & Weintraub, E. (2022). Practical considerations for treating comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder in the addictions clinic. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 45(3), 375–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2022.05.003
  • Jakubowski, A., & Fox, A. (2020). Defining low-threshold buprenorphine treatment. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 14(2), 95–98. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000555
  • Jellestad, L., Vital, N. A., Malamud, J., Taeymans, J., & Mueller-Pfeiffer, C. (2021). Functional impairment in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 136, 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.01.039
  • Jepsen, E. K. K., Langeland, W., Sexton, H., & Heir, T. (2014). Inpatient treatment for early sexually abused adults: A naturalistic 12-month follow-up study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(2), 142–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031646
  • Jericho, B., Luo, A., & Berle, D. (2022). Trauma‐focused psychotherapies for post‐traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and network meta‐analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 145(2), 132–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13366
  • Jones, C. M., Merrick, M. T., & Houry, D. E. (2020). Identifying and preventing adverse childhood experiences: Implications for clinical practice. JAMA, 323(1), 25–26. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.18499
  • Kabat, D. H., Stellman, S. D., & Stellman, J. M. (2018). Perceived racial, ethnic, and gender discrimination among male and female Vietnam-era veterans and PTSD symptoms later in life. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000061-004
  • Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Bradley, A., Cloitre, M., Roberts, N. P., Bisson, J. I., & Shevlin, M. (2019). Risk factors and comorbidity of ICD‐11 PTSD and complex PTSD: Findings from a trauma‐exposed population based sample of adults in the United Kingdom. Depression and Anxiety, 36(9), 887–894. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22934
  • Karatzias, T., Murphy, P., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J., Roberts, N., Shevlin, M., Hyland, P., Maercker, A., Ben-Ezra, M., Coventry, P., Mason-Roberts, S., Bradley, A., & Hutton, P. (2019). Psychological interventions for ICD-11 complex PTSD symptoms: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(11), 1761–1775. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719000436
  • Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Ford, J. D., Fyvie, C., Grandison, G., Hyland, P., & Cloitre, M. (2022). Childhood trauma, attachment orientation, and complex PTSD (CPTSD) symptoms in a clinical sample: Implications for treatment. Development and Psychopathology, 34(3), 1192–1197. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420001509
  • Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., Roberts, N., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R., & Cloitre, M. (2016). An initial psychometric assessment of an ICD-11 based measure of PTSD and complex PTSD (ICD-TQ): Evidence of construct validity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 44, 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.10.009
  • Kate, M.-A., Hopwood, T., & Jamieson, G. (2020). The prevalence of dissociative disorders and dissociative experiences in college populations: A meta-analysis of 98 studies. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 21(1), 16–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2019.1647915
  • Kehle-Forbes, S. M., Chen, S., Polusny, M. A., Lynch, K. G., Koffel, E., Ingram, E., Foa, E. B., Van Horn, D. H. A., Drapkin, M. L., Yusko, D. A., & Oslin, D. W. (2019). A randomized controlled trial evaluating integrated versus phased application of evidence-based psychotherapies for military veterans with comorbid PTSD and substance use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 205, 107647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107647
  • Kerr, T., Fairbairn, N., Tyndall, M., Marsh, D., Li, K., Montaner, J., & Wood, E. (2007). Predictors of non-fatal overdose among a cohort of polysubstance-using injection drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 87(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.07.009
  • Kilcommons, A. M., & Morrison, A. P. (2005). Relationships between trauma and psychosis: An exploration of cognitive and dissociative factors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112(5), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00623.x
  • Kiluk, B. D., Dreifuss, J. A., Weiss, R. D., Morgenstern, J., & Carroll, K. M. (2013). The Short Inventory of Problems – Revised (SIP-R): Psychometric properties within a large, diverse sample of substance use disorder treatment seekers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors : Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors: Of Society Psychologists Addictive, 27(1), 307–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028445
  • Kimerling, R., Ouimette, P., Prins, A., Nisco, P., Lawler, C., Cronkite, R., & Moos, R. H. (2006). Brief report: Utility of a short screening scale for DSM-IV PTSD in primary care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(1), 65–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2005.00292.x
  • Kimerling, R., Trafton, J. A., & Nguyen, B. (2006). Validation of a brief screen for post-traumatic stress disorder with substance use disorder patients. Addictive Behaviors, 31(11), 2074–2079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.02.008
  • Kipke, M. D., Simon, T. R., Montgomery, S. B., Unger, J. B., & Iversen, E. F. (1997). Homeless youth and their exposure to and involvement in violence while living on the streets. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine: Publication the for Medicine, 20(5), 360–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(97)00037-2
  • Kleindienst, N., Priebe, K., Görg, N., Dyer, A., Steil, R., Lyssenko, L., Winter, D., Schmahl, C., & Bohus, M. (2016). State dissociation moderates response to dialectical behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in women with and without borderline personality disorder. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 30375. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v7.30375
  • Knefel, M., & Lueger-Schuster, B. (2013). An evaluation of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD criteria in a sample of adult survivors of childhood institutional abuse. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4(1), 22608. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.22608
  • Kostaras, P., Bergiannaki, J.-D., Psarros, C., Ploumbidis, D., & Papageorgiou, C. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in outpatients with depression: Still a missed diagnosis. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 18(2), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2016.1237402
  • Krawczyk, N., Mojtabai, R., Stuart, E. A., Fingerhood, M., Agus, D., Lyons, B. C., Weiner, J. P., & Saloner, B. (2020). Opioid agonist treatment and fatal overdose risk in a state-wide US population receiving opioid use disorder services. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 115(9), 1683–1694. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14991
  • Krüger, A., Ehring, T., Priebe, K., Dyer, A. S., Steil, R., & Bohus, M. (2014). Sudden losses and sudden gains during a DBT-PTSD treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder following childhood sexual abuse. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 24470. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.24470
  • Krysinska, K., & Lester, D. (2010). Post-traumatic stress disorder and suicide risk: A systematic review. Archives of Suicide Research : Official Journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research: Journal the Academy Suicide, 14(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110903478997
  • Langendam, M. W., van Brussel, G. H., Coutinho, R. A., & van Ameijden, E. J. (2001). The impact of harm-reduction-based methadone treatment on mortality among heroin users. American Journal of Public Health, 91(5), 774–780. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.91.5.774
  • Langs, R. J. (1975). The therapeutic relationship and deviations in technique. International Journal of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 4, 106–141.
  • Lanius, R. A., Boyd, J. E., McKinnon, M. C., Nicholson, A. A., Frewen, P., Vermetten, E., Jetly, R., & Spiegel, D. (2018). A review of the neurobiological basis of trauma-related dissociation and its relation to cannabinoid- and opioid-mediated stress response: A transdiagnostic, translational approach. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20(12), 118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-018-0983-y
  • Leeds, A. M., Madere, J. A., & Coy, D. M. (2022). Beyond the DES-II: Screening for dissociative disorders in EMDR therapy. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 16(1), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1891/EMDR-D-21-2021-00019
  • Letica-Crepulja, M., Stevanović, A., Protuđer, M., Grahovac Juretić, T., Rebić, J., & Frančišković, T. (2020). Complex PTSD among treatment-seeking veterans with PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1716593. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1716593
  • Levi, O., Ben Yehuda, A., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2022). A sobering look at treatment effectiveness of military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychological Science, 10(4), 690–699. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026211051314
  • Lewis, C., Lewis, K., Roberts, A., Edwards, B., Evison, C., John, A., Meudell, A., Parry, P., Pearce, H., Richards, N., Jones, I., & Bisson, J. I. (2022). Trauma exposure and co-occurring ICD-11 post-traumatic stress disorder and complex post-traumatic stress disorder in adults with lived experience of psychiatric disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 146(3), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13467
  • Liebschutz, J., Saitz, R., Brower, V., Keane, T. M., Lloyd-Travaglini, C., Averbuch, T., & Samet, J. H. (2007). PTSD in urban primary care: High prevalence and low physician recognition. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(6), 719–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-007-0161-0
  • Loewenstein, R., Brand, B., Gilbert, L. E., Dressel, C. E., Camins, J. S., & Pyne, Z. J. (2014). Treating complex trauma survivors. Psychiatric Times, 31(10), 40.
  • Lommen, M. J. J., & Restifo, K. (2009). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Community Mental Health Journal, 45(6), 485–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-009-9248-x
  • López‐Castro, T., Saraiya, T., Zumberg‐Smith, K., & Dambreville, N. (2019). Association between shame and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(4), 484–495. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22411
  • Lundahl, B. W., Kunz, C., Brownell, C., Tollefson, D., & Burke, B. L. (2010). A meta-analysis of motivational interviewing: Twenty-five years of empirical studies. Research on Social Work Practice, 20(2), 137–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731509347850
  • Lyssenko, L., Schmahl, C., Bockhacker, L., Vonderlin, R., Bohus, M., & Kleindienst, N. (2018). Dissociation in psychiatric disorders: A meta-analysis of studies using the dissociative experiences scale. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17010025
  • Macia, K. S., Carlson, E. B., Palmieri, P. A., Smith, S. R., Anglin, D. M., Ghosh Ippen, C., Lieberman, A. F., Wong, E. C., Schell, T. L., & Waelde, L. C. (2023). Development of a brief version of the dissociative symptoms scale and the reliability and validity of DSS-B scores in diverse clinical and community samples. Assessment, 30(7), 2058–2073. 107319112211333. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911221133317
  • Madden, L. M., Farnum, S. O., Eggert, K. F., Quanbeck, A. R., Freeman, R. M., Ball, S. A., Schottenfeld, R. S., Shi, J. M., Savage, M. E., & Barry, D. T. (2018). An investigation of an open-access model for scaling up methadone maintenance treatment. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 113(8), 1450–1458. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14198
  • Magruder, K. M., Frueh, B. C., Knapp, R. G., Davis, L., Hamner, M. B., Martin, R. H., Gold, P. B., & Arana, G. W. (2005). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in Veterans Affairs primary care clinics. General Hospital Psychiatry, 27(3), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2004.11.001
  • Mancher, M., & Leshner, A. I. (Eds.). (2019). Medications for opioid use disorder save lives. National Academies Press (US). https://doi.org/10.17226/25310
  • Matlin, S. L., Champine, R. B., Strambler, M. J., O'Brien, C., Hoffman, E., Whitson, M., Kolka, L., & Tebes, J. K. (2019). A community’s response to adverse childhood experiences: Building a resilient, trauma‐informed community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 64(3–4), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12386
  • Mattick, R. P., Breen, C., Kimber, J., & Davoli, M. (2009). Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2009(3), CD002209. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002209.pub2
  • Mattick, R. P., Breen, C., Kimber, J., & Davoli, M. (2014). Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2014(2), CD002207. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002207.pub4
  • McClendon, J., Kressin, N., Perkins, D., Copeland, L. A., Finley, E. P., & Vogt, D. (2021). The impact of discriminatory stress on changes in posttraumatic stress severity at the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 22(2), 170–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1869079
  • McFarlane, A. C., Bookless, C., & Air, T. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder in a general psychiatric inpatient population. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(4), 633–645. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013077702520
  • McFarlane, A., Schrader, G., Bookless, C., & Browne, D. (2006). Prevalence of victimization, posttraumatic stress disorder and violent behaviour in the seriously mentally ill. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40(11–12), 1010–1015. https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01925.x
  • McIlveen, R., Mitchell, R., Curran, D., Dyer, K., Corry, M., DePrince, A., Dorahy, M., & Hanna, D. (2022). Exploring the relationship between alienation appraisals, trauma, posttraumatic stress, and depression. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 14(6), 998–1006. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000523
  • McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Lambert, H. K. (2014). Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 578–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.012
  • McLaughlin, M. F., Li, R., Carrero, N. D., Bain, P. A., & Chatterjee, A. (2021). Opioid use disorder treatment for people experiencing homelessness: A scoping review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 224, 108717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108717
  • McLellan, T. A., Arndt, I. O., Metzger, D. S., Woody, G. E., & O'Brlen, C. P. (1993). The effects of psychosocial services in substance abuse treatment. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 5(2), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.3109/10884609309149701
  • McNeely, J., Wu, L.-T., Subramaniam, G., Sharma, G., Cathers, L. A., Svikis, D., Sleiter, L., Russell, L., Nordeck, C., Sharma, A., O'Grady, K. E., Bouk, L. B., Cushing, C., King, J., Wahle, A., & Schwartz, R. P. (2016). Performance of the tobacco, alcohol, prescription medication, and other substance use (TAPS) tool for substance use screening in primary care patients. Annals of Internal Medicine, 165(10), 690. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-0317
  • Meier, A., Lambert-Harris, C., McGovern, M. P., Xie, H., An, M., & McLeman, B. (2014). Co-occurring prescription opioid use problems and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 40(4), 304–311. https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2014.910519
  • Mersky, J. P., Topitzes, J., & Reynolds, A. J. (2012). Unsafe at any age: Linking childhood and adolescent maltreatment to delinquency and crime. The Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 49(2), 295–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427811415284
  • Middleton, W., & Higson, D. (2004). Establishing and running a trauma and dissociation unit: A contemporary experience. Australasian Psychiatry, 12(4), 338–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1665.2004.02124.x
  • Mittal, D., Drummond, K. L., Blevins, D., Curran, G., Corrigan, P., & Sullivan, G. (2013). Stigma associated with PTSD: Perceptions of treatment seeking combat veterans. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 36(2), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0094976
  • Molina-Coloma, V., Salaberría, K., Pérez, J. I., & Kendall-Tackett, K. (2022). Traumatic events, psychological symptoms, and aggression in male and female prisoners. Psychological Trauma : Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 14(3), 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001039
  • Møller, L., Augsburger, M., Elklit, A., Søgaard, U., & Simonsen, E. (2020). Traumatic experiences, ICD‐11 PTSD, ICD‐11 complex PTSD, and the overlap with ICD‐10 diagnoses. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 141(5), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13161
  • Møller, L., Bach, B., Augsburger, M., Elklit, A., Søgaard, U., & Simonsen, E. (2021). Structure of ICD-11 complex PTSD and relationship with psychoform and somatoform dissociation. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 5(3), 100233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2021.100233
  • Møller, L., Søgaard, U., Elklit, A., & Simonsen, E. (2021). Differences between ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD on DSM-5 section III personality traits. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1894805. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1894805
  • Montiel Ishino, F. A., McNab, P. R., Gilreath, T., Salmeron, B., & Williams, F. (2020). A comprehensive multivariate model of biopsychosocial factors associated with opioid misuse and use disorder in a 2017–2018 United States national survey. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1740. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09856-2
  • Mueser, K. T., Goodman, L. B., Trumbetta, S. L., Rosenberg, S. D., Osher, F. C., Vidaver, R., Auciello, P., & Foy, D. W. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(3), 493–499. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.66.3.493
  • Murkin, G. (2014). Drug Decriminalisation in Portugal: Setting the record straight. Transform Drug Policy Foundation, Online Verfügbar Unter: http://www. Tdpf. Org. Uk/Blog/Drug-Decriminalisation-Portugal-Setting-Record-Straight.
  • Murphy, D., Karatzias, T., Busuttil, W., Greenberg, N., & Shevlin, M. (2021). ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) in treatment seeking veterans: Risk factors and comorbidity. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(7), 1289–1298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02028-6
  • Murphy, S. M., Jeng, P. J., Poole, S. A., Jalali, A., Vocci, F. J., Gordon, M. S., Woody, G. E., & Polsky, D. (2020). Health and economic outcomes of treatment with extended-release naltrexone among pre-release prisoners with opioid use disorder (HOPPER): Protocol for an evaluation of two randomized effectiveness trials. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice, 15(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13722-020-00188-5
  • Myrick, A. C., Webermann, A. R., Loewenstein, R. J., Lanius, R., Putnam, F. W., & Brand, B. L. (2017). Six-year follow-up of the treatment of patients with dissociative disorders study*. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1344080. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1344080
  • Nadal, K. L., Erazo, T., & King, R. (2019). Challenging definitions of psychological trauma: Connecting racial microaggressions and traumatic stress. Journal for Social Action in Counseling & Psychology, 11(2), 2–16. https://doi.org/10.33043/JSACP.11.2.2-16
  • Najavits, L. M. (2015). The problem of dropout from “gold standard” PTSD therapies. F1000Prime Reports, 7, 43. https://doi.org/10.12703/P7-43
  • Najavits, L. M., & Walsh, M. (2012). Dissociation, PTSD, and substance abuse: An empirical study. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 13(1), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2011.608781
  • NCTSN. (2020, October 28). NCTSN trauma-informed organizational assessment. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. https://www.nctsn.org/trauma-informed-care/nctsn-trauma-informed-organizational-assessment
  • Nester, M. S., Brand, B. L., Schielke, H. J., & Kumar, S. (2022). An examination of the relations between emotion dysregulation, dissociation, and self-injury among dissociative disorder patients. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1), 2031592. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2031592
  • Nestgaard Rød, Å., & Schmidt, C. (2021). Complex PTSD: What is the clinical utility of the diagnosis? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 2002028. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.2002028
  • Nijdam, M. J., Vermetten, E., & McFarlane, A. C. (2023). Toward staging differentiation for posttraumatic stress disorder treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 147(1), 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13520
  • Nolan, S., Dias Lima, V., Fairbairn, N., Kerr, T., Montaner, J., Grebely, J., & Wood, E. (2014). The impact of methadone maintenance therapy on hepatitis C incidence among illicit drug users. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 109(12), 2053–2059. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12682
  • Nordeck, C. D., Buresh, M., Krawczyk, N., Fingerhood, M., & Agus, D. (2021). Adapting a low-threshold buprenorphine program for vulnerable populations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 15(5), 364–369. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000774
  • O’Connor, A. M., Cousins, G., Durand, L., Barry, J., & Boland, F. (2020). Retention of patients in opioid substitution treatment: A systematic review. PLOS One, 15(5), e0232086. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232086
  • Olafson, E., Boat, B. W., Putnam, K. T., Thieken, L., Marrow, M. T., & Putnam, F. W. (2018). Implementing trauma and grief component therapy for adolescents and think trauma for traumatized youth in secure juvenile justice settings. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(16), 2537–2557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516628287
  • Olds, D. L., Eckenrode, J., Henderson, C. R., Kitzman, H., Powers, J., Cole, R., Sidora, K., Morris, P., Pettitt, L. M., & Luckey, D. (1997). Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect: Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Jama: The Journal of the American Medical Associationof American Association, 278(8), 637–643. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.278.8.637
  • Oprel, D. A. C., Hoeboer, C. M., Schoorl, M., Kleine, R. A. D., Cloitre, M., Wigard, I. G., Van Minnen, A., & Van Der Does, W. (2021). Effect of prolonged exposure, intensified prolonged exposure and STAIR + prolonged exposure in patients with PTSD related to childhood abuse: A randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1851511. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1851511
  • Otiniano Verissimo, A. D., Henley, N., Gee, G. C., Davis, C., & Grella, C. (2023). Homelessness and discrimination among US adults: The role of intersectionality. Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 32(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2021.1935650
  • Pamplin, J. R., Rouhani, S., Davis, C. S., King, C., & Townsend, T. N. (2023). Persistent criminalization and structural racism in US drug policy: The case of overdose Good Samaritan Laws. American Journal of Public Health, 113(S1), S43–S48. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.307037
  • Park, J. N., Rouhani, S., Beletsky, L., Vincent, L., Saloner, B., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Situating the continuum of overdose risk in the social determinants of health: A new conceptual framework. The Milbank Quarterly, 98(3), 700–746. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12470
  • Park, J. N., Weir, B. W., Allen, S. T., Chaulk, P., & Sherman, S. G. (2018). Fentanyl-contaminated drugs and non-fatal overdose among people who inject drugs in Baltimore, MD. Harm Reduction Journal, 15(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-018-0240-z
  • Patel, M. R., Foote, C., Duwve, J., Chapman, E., Combs, B., Fry, A., Hall, P., Roseberry, J., Brooks, J. T., & Broz, D. (2018). Reduction of injection-related risk behaviors after emergency implementation of a syringe services program during an HIV outbreak. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 77(4), 373–382. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001615
  • Peachey, J. E., & Lei, H. (1988). Assessment of opioid dependence with naloxone. British Journal of Addiction, 83(2), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1988.tb03981.x
  • Peck, K. R., Badger, G. J., Cole, R., Higgins, S. T., Moxley-Kelly, N., & Sigmon, S. C. (2023). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD in individuals with opioid use disorder: A randomized pilot study. Addictive Behaviors, 143, 107688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107688
  • Pescosolido, B. A., Halpern-Manners, A., Luo, L., & Perry, B. (2021). Trends in public stigma of mental illness in the US, 1996–2018. JAMA Network Open, 4(12), e2140202. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.40202
  • Petrakis, I. L., & Simpson, T. L. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol use disorder: A critical review of pharmacologic treatments. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 41(2), 226–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.13297
  • Polonsky, M. S. (2019). High-reliability organizations: The next frontier in healthcare quality and safety. Journal of Healthcare Management / American College of Healthcare Executives, 64(4), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1097/JHM-D-19-00098
  • Prins, A., Bovin, M. J., Smolenski, D. J., Marx, B. P., Kimerling, R., Jenkins-Guarnieri, M. A., Kaloupek, D. G., Schnurr, P. P., Kaiser, A. P., Leyva, Y. E., & Tiet, Q. Q. (2016). The primary care PTSD screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5): Development and evaluation within a veteran primary care sample. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 31(10), 1206–1211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-016-3703-5
  • Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.3.390
  • Pross, C., & Schweitzer, S. (2010). The culture of organizations dealing with trauma: Sources of work-related stress and conflict. Traumatology, 16(4), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610388301
  • Purnell, L. R., Graham, A. C. J., Bloomfield, M. A. P., & Billings, J. (2021). Reintegration interventions for CPTSD: A systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1934789. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1934789
  • Racha, S., Buresh, M., & Fingerhood, M. (2022). Pharmacotherapy of opioid use disorder-update and current challenges. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 45(3), 335–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2022.04.001
  • Ramprashad, A., Burnett, G. M., & Welsh, C. (2022). Harm reduction: Not dirty words anymore. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 45(3), 529–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2022.04.005
  • Rapp, R. C., Van Den Noortgate, W., Broekaert, E., & Vanderplasschen, W. (2014). The efficacy of case management with persons who have substance abuse problems: A three-level meta-analysis of outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(4), 605–618. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036750
  • Ray, B., Korzeniewski, S. J., Mohler, G., Carroll, J. J., Del Pozo, B., Victor, G., Huynh, P., & Hedden, B. J. (2023). Spatiotemporal analysis exploring the effect of law enforcement drug market disruptions on overdose, Indianapolis, Indiana, 2020–2021. American Journal of Public Health, 113(7), 750–758. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307291
  • Resnick, S. G., Bond, G. R., & Mueser, K. T. (2003). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in people with schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(3), 415–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.415
  • Rhee, T. G., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2019). Comparison of opioid use disorder among male veterans and non-veterans: Disorder rates, socio-demographics, co-morbidities, and quality of life: OUD among male veterans and non-veterans. The American Journal on Addictions, 28(2), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.12861
  • Roberts, N. P., Lotzin, A., & Schäfer, I. (2022). A systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological interventions for comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1), 2041831. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2041831
  • Roos, L. E., Afifi, T. O., Martin, C. G., Pietrzak, R. H., Tsai, J., & Sareen, J. (2016). Linking typologies of childhood adversity to adult incarceration: Findings from a nationally representative sample. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(5), 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000144
  • Rosenberg, H., Grant, J., & Davis, A. K. (2020). Acceptance of non-abstinence as an outcome goal for individuals diagnosed with substance use disorders: A narrative review of published research. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 81(4), 405–415. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2020.81.405
  • Ruttenberg, D. (2022). On repentance and repair: Making amends in an unapologetic world. Beacon Press.
  • Sachs, A. (2019a). Attachment as a second language: Treating active dissociative identity disorder. Frontiers in the Psychotherapy of Trauma and Dissociation, 3(1), 107–122. https://doi.org/10.46716/ftpd.2019.0028
  • Sachs, A. (2019b). Through the lens of attachment relationship: Stable DID, active DID and other trauma-based mental disorders. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 18(3), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2017.1295400
  • Salter, M., & Hall, H. (2022). Reducing shame, promoting dignity: A model for the primary prevention of complex post-traumatic stress disorder. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 23(3), 906–919. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020979667
  • Samet, J. H., Botticelli, M., & Bharel, M. (2018). Methadone in primary care—One small step for congress, one giant leap for addiction treatment. The New England Journal of Medicine, 379(1), 7–8. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1803982
  • Sanchez, T. W. (2008). Poverty, policy, and public transportation. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 42(5), 833–841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2008.01.011
  • Sar, V. (2011). Epidemiology of dissociative disorders: An overview. Epidemiology Research International, 2011, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/404538
  • Schacht, R. L., Brooner, R. K., King, V. L., Kidorf, M. S., & Peirce, J. M. (2017). Incentivizing attendance to prolonged exposure for PTSD with opioid use disorder patients: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(7), 689–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000208
  • Schiavone, F. L., Frewen, P., McKinnon, M., & Lanius, R. A. (2018). The dissociative subtype of PTSD: An update of the literature. PTSD Research Quarterly, 29(3), 1–13.
  • Schnyder, U., Ehlers, A., Elbert, T., Foa, E. B., Gersons, B. P. R., Resick, P. A., Shapiro, F., & Cloitre, M. (2015). Psychotherapies for PTSD: What do they have in common? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 28186. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.28186
  • Schuster, C. R., Greenwald, M. K., Johanson, C.-E., & Heishman, S. J. (1995). Measurement of drug craving during naloxone-precipitated withdrawal in methadone-maintained volunteers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3(4), 424–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.3.4.424
  • Schwartz, R. P., Kelly, S. M., O'Grady, K. E., Gandhi, D., & Jaffe, J. H. (2012). Randomized trial of standard methadone treatment compared to initiating methadone without counseling: 12-month findings. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 107(5), 943–952. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03700.x
  • Seabrook, R. C., Walsh, T. B., Tolman, R. M., Lee, S. J., Ngo, Q., & Singh, V. (2020). Prescription opioid misuse and intimate partner violence perpetration among a nationally representative sample of young men. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(14), 2251–2257. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1784945
  • Seal, K. H., Kral, A. H., Gee, L., Moore, L. D., Bluthenthal, R. N., Lorvick, J., & Edlin, B. R. (2001). Predictors and prevention of nonfatal overdose among street-recruited injection heroin users in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1998–1999. American Journal of Public Health, 91(11), 1842–1846. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.11.1842
  • Semaan, S., Fleming, P., Worrell, C., Stolp, H., Baack, B., & Miller, M. (2011). Potential role of safer injection facilities in reducing HIV and hepatitis C infections and overdose mortality in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 118(2–3), 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.03.006
  • Seng, J. S., Lopez, W. D., Sperlich, M., Hamama, L., & Reed Meldrum, C. D. (2012). Marginalized identities, discrimination burden, and mental health: Empirical exploration of an interpersonal-level approach to modeling intersectionality. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 75(12), 2437–2445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.09.023
  • Shapiro, F. (2018). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy third edition: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. Guilford Press.
  • Sherba, R. T., Coxe, K. A., Gersper, B. E., & Linley, J. V. (2018). Employment services and substance abuse treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 87, 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2018.01.015
  • Sherman, S. G., Fuller, C. M., Shah, N., Ompad, D. V., Vlahov, D., & Strathdee, S. A. (2005). Correlates of initiation of injection drug use among young drug users in Baltimore, Maryland: The need for early intervention. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 37(4), 437–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2005.10399817
  • Sibrava, N. J., Bjornsson, A. S., Pérez Benítez, A. C. I., Moitra, E., Weisberg, R. B., & Keller, M. B. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and Latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination. The American Psychologist, 74(1), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000339
  • Simmons, C., Meiser-Stedman, R., Baily, H., & Beazley, P. (2021). A meta-analysis of dropout from evidence-based psychological treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children and young people. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1947570. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1947570
  • Simon, N., Roberts, N. P., Lewis, C. E., Van Gelderen, M. J., & Bisson, J. I. (2019). Associations between perceived social support, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD): Implications for treatment. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1573129. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1573129
  • Simpson, D. D., Joe, G. W., & Bracy, S. A. (1982). Six-year follow-up of opioid addicts after admission to treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39(11), 1318–1323. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290110070012
  • Skevington, S. M., Lotfy, M., & O'Connell, K. A. (2004). The World Health Organization’s WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment: Psychometric properties and results of the international field trial A Report from the WHOQOL Group. Quality of Life Research, 13(2), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:qure.0000018486.91360.00
  • Smidt, A. M., & Freyd, J. J. (2018). Government-mandated institutional betrayal. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 19(5), 491–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2018.1502029
  • Smith, C. (2017). First, do no harm: Institutional betrayal and trust in health care organizations. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 10, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S125885
  • Smith, K. Z., Smith, P. H., Cercone, S. A., McKee, S. A., & Homish, G. G. (2016). Past year non-medical opioid use and abuse and PTSD diagnosis: Interactions with sex and associations with symptom clusters. Addictive Behaviors, 58, 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.02.019
  • Smith, S. E., & Ford, J. D. (2020). Complementary healing therapies. In C. A. Courtois & J. D. Ford (Eds.), Treating complex traumatic stress disorders in adults (2nd ed., pp. 569–590). Guilford Press.
  • Sobell, L. C., & Sobell, M. B. (1992). Timeline follow-back: A technique for assessing self-reported alcohol consumption. In R. Litten & J. Allen (Eds.) Measuring alcohol consumption: Psychosocial and biochemical methods (pp. 41–72). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-0357-5
  • Somer, E., Altus, L., & Ginzburg, K. (2010). Dissociative psychopathology among opioid use disorder patients: Exploring the “chemical dissociation” hypothesis. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 51(4), 419–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.09.007
  • Spencer, M. R., Minino, A. M., & Warner, M. (2022). Drug overdose deaths in the United States 2001–2021 (NCHS Data Brief, no 457). https://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc:122556
  • Spinazzola, J., van der Kolk, B., & Ford, J. D. (2021). Developmental trauma disorder: A legacy of attachment trauma in victimized children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(4), 711–720. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22697
  • Stahler, G. J., & Mennis, J. (2020). The effect of medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) on residential treatment completion and retention in the US. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 212, 108067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108067
  • Stark, M. J. (1992). Dropping out of substance abuse treatment: A clinically oriented review. Clinical Psychology Review, 12(1), 93–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(92)90092-m
  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach, 27.
  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration. (2022). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP22-07-01-005, NSDUH Series H-57). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2021-nsduh-annual-national-report
  • Tanner, J., Zeffiro, T., Wyss, D., Perron, N., Rufer, M., & Mueller-Pfeiffer, C. (2019). Psychiatric symptom profiles predict functional impairment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 37. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00037
  • Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., Rabinowitz, J., Feldman, D., & Vaturi, R. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder in primary-care settings: Prevalence and physicians’ detection. Psychological Medicine, 31(3), 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701003658
  • Teicher, M. H., Gordon, J. B., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2022). Recognizing the importance of childhood maltreatment as a critical factor in psychiatric diagnoses, treatment, research, prevention, and education. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(3), 1331–1338. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01367-9
  • Valentine, S. E., Smith, A. M., Miller, K., Hadden, L., & Shipherd, J. C. (2023). Considerations and complexities of accurate PTSD assessment among transgender and gender diverse adults. Psychological Assessment, 35(5), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001215
  • van der Kolk, B. A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., & Spinazzola, J. (2005). Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20047
  • van Dijke, A., Ford, J. D., van der Hart, O., van Son, M., van der Heijden, P., & Buhring, M. (2012). Complex posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorders. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(2), 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025732
  • Van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417
  • van Vliet, N. I., Huntjens, R. J. C., Van Dijk, M. K., & De Jongh, A. (2018). Phase-based treatment versus immediate trauma-focused treatment in patients with childhood trauma-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 19(1), 138. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-018-2508-8
  • Vanderplasschen, W., Rapp, R. C., De Maeyer, J., & Van Den Noortgate, W. (2019). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of case management for substance use disorders: A recovery perspective. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 186. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00186
  • Volkow, N. D. (2022, December 16). NIH invests in a new harm reduction research network. National Institute on Drug Abuse. https://nida.nih.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2022/12/nih-invests-in-new-harm-reduction-research-network
  • Vonderlin, R., Kleindienst, N., Alpers, G. W., Bohus, M., Lyssenko, L., & Schmahl, C. (2018). Dissociation in victims of childhood abuse or neglect: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Medicine, 48(15), 2467–2476. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718000740
  • Wallace, B., Kennedy, M. C., Kerr, T., & Pauly, B. (2019). Factors associated with nonfatal overdose during a public health emergency. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2018.1491051
  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
  • Watts, B. V., Schnurr, P. P., Mayo, L., Young-Xu, Y., Weeks, W. B., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74(6), e541–e550. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12r08225
  • Wesson, D. R., & Ling, W. (2003). The clinical opiate withdrawal scale (COWS). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35(2), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2003.10400007
  • White, B., Dore, G. J., Lloyd, A. R., Rawlinson, W. D., & Maher, L. (2014). Opioid substitution therapy protects against hepatitis C virus acquisition in people who inject drugs: The HITS-c study. The Medical Journal of Australia, 201(6), 326–329. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja13.00153
  • White, W. F., Burgess, A., Dalgleish, T., Halligan, S., Hiller, R., Oxley, A., Smith, P., & Meiser-Stedman, R. (2022). Prevalence of the dissociative subtype of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 52(9), 1629–1644. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001647
  • Whitworth, J. D. (2016). The role of psychoeducation in trauma recovery: Recommendations for content and delivery. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 13(5), 442–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2016.1166852
  • Williams, J. R., Girdler, S., Williams, W., & Cromeens, M. G. (2021). The effects of co-occurring interpersonal trauma and gender on opioid use and misuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23–24), NP13185–NP13205. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519900309
  • Williamson, M. L. C., Stickley, M. M., Armstrong, T. W., Jackson, K., & Console, K. (2022). Diagnostic accuracy of the primary Care PTSD screen for DSM‐5 (PC‐PTSD‐5) within a civilian primary care sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 78(11), 2299–2308. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23405
  • World Health Organization (2019). ICD-11: International classification of diseases (11th revision). https://icd.who.int/
  • World Health Organization. (1996). WHOQOL-BREF: Introduction, administration, scoring and generic version of the assessment: field trial version, December 1996. World Health Organization.
  • Zaleski, K. (2018). Putting it all together: Judith Herman’s theory of triphasic healing and neurobiological considerations in the treatment of symptoms related to MST. In K. Zaleski (Ed.), Understanding and treating military sexual trauma (pp. 141–158). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73724-9_9
  • Zanville, H. A., & Cattaneo, L. B. (2009). Underdiagnosing and nontreatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in community mental health: A case study. Psychological Services, 6(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014410
  • Zayfert, C., & Black, C. (2000). Implementation of empirically supported treatment for PTSD: Obstacles and innovations. The Behavior Therapist, 23(8), 161–168.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.