Limitations and inconsistencies of using the four waves of modern terrorism to understand Latin America

References

• Abidor, M. 2016. Death to Bourgeois Society: The Propagandists of the Deed. Los Angeles: PM Press.
   Google Scholar
• Art. 1, Para. 2 of the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, (1937); quoted in Wurth, Paul. 1941. La repression international du terrorisme, 50. Lausanne: Imprimerie la Concorde.
   Google Scholar
• Auger, V. A. 2020. “Right-Wing Terror: A Fifth Global Wave?” Perspectives on Terrorism 14 (3): 87–97.
   Google Scholar
• Austin, J. L. 2015. “We Have Never Been Civilized: Torture and the Materiality of World Political Binaries.” European Journal of International Relations 23 (1): 49–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066115616466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagley, B., and J. Tokatlian. 1990. “Colombia, el dilema de la droga.” Nueva Sociedad 109 (1): 9–13.
   Google Scholar
• Barker, J. 2003. The No-Nonsense Guide to Terrorism. Oxford: New Internationalist Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Bar-On, T. 2014. The World Through Soccer: The Cultural Impact of a Global Game. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Bar-On, T., and H. Goldstein. 2005. “Fighting Violence: A Critique of the War on Terrorism.” International Politics 42 (2): 225–245. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.ip.8800108.
   Google Scholar
• Biernatzki, W. E. 2002. “Terrorism and Mass Media.” Communication Research Trends 21 (1): 1–43.
   Google Scholar
• Blumenau, B. 2021. “Terrorism, History and Neighbouring Disciplines in the Academy.” In The Cambridge History of Terrorism, edited by R. English, 124–146. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brett, R. 2021. “Political Violence and Terrorism in Colombia.” In The Cambridge History of Terrorism, edited by R. English, 387–419. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Byman, D. 2007. Deadly Connections: States That Sponsor Terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter, V. 2018. The Tlatelolco Massacre, Mexico 1968, and the Emotional Triangle of Anger, Grief and Shame: Discourses of Truth(s). Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carr, C. 2003. The Lessons of Terror: A History of Warfare Against Civilians. New York: Random House.
   Google Scholar
• Celso, A. N. 2015. “The Islamic State and Boko Haram: Fifth Wave Jihadist Terror Groups.” Orbis 59 (2): 249–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2015.02.010.
   Google Scholar
• Cepeda, I. 2006. “Genocidio político: el caso de la Unión Patriótica en Colombia.” Revista Cetil 1 (2): 101–112.
   Google Scholar
• Chesnut, A. R. 2019. “Saint Nazario and the Knights Templar: The Narco-Evangelicalism of a Mexican Drug Cartel.” In Los Caballeros Templarios de Michoacán: Imagery, Symbolism, and Narratives. Bethesda: Small Wars Foundation, edited by R. Bunker and A. Keshavarz, 78–81, Bethesda: Small Wars Journal-El Centro.
   Google Scholar
• Chiangi, M. A. 2021. “Critically Examining David Rapoport’s Four Waves Theory of Modern Terrorism in the Light of Factual Historical Events.” African Journal on Terrorism 11 (1): 11–29.
   Google Scholar
• Clutterbuck, L. 2004. “The Progenitors of Terrorism: Russian Revolutionaries or Extreme Irish Republicans?” Terrorism and Political Violence 16 (1): 154–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550490457917.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CNMH (Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica). 2018. “262.197 muertos dejó el conflicto armado.” https://web.archive.org/web/20190331204359/http://www.centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/noticias/noticias-cmh/262-197-muertos-dejo-el-conflicto-armado.
   Google Scholar
• Coady, C. A. J. 2021. The Meaning of Terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, J. 2021. “A New Wave of Terrorism? A Comparative Analysis of the Rise of Far-Right Terrorism.” Perspectives on Terrorism 15 (6): 2–22.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, S. D. 2014. “State‐Sponsored Terrorism: In Decline, Yet Still a Potent Threat.” Politics & Policy 42 (1): 131–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12061.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, H. H. A. 2001. “Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited.” American Behavioural Scientist 44 (6): 881–893. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027640121956575.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costanza, W. 2012. “Hizballah and Its Mission in Latin America.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 35 (3): 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2012.648155.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, M. 1981. “The Causes of Terrorism.” Comparative Politics 13 (4): 379–399. https://doi.org/10.2307/421717.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, M. 1985. Terrorism in Context. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, M., and J. Pimlott, eds. 1997. Encyclopedia of World Terrorism. Vol. 1. New York: Sharpe.
   Google Scholar
• Cuevas, G. 1992. “El narcotráfico: Sus efectos en la estabilidad y eficiencia del Estado.” Política Revista de Ciencia Política 30 (1): 275–285. https://revistapolitica.uchile.cl/index.php/RP/article/view/55093.
   Google Scholar
• Da Silva, J. R. 2020. “The Eco-Terrorist Wave.” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 12 (3): 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2019.1680725.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farmer, P. 2006. AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame. Berkeley: California University Press.
   Google Scholar
• FBI. 2023. Terrorism Definitions. https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism#:~:text=International%20terrorism%3A%20Violent%2C%20criminal%20acts,nations%20(state%2Dsponsored).
   Google Scholar
• Feldmann, A. 2005. “A Shift in the Paradigm of Violence: Non-Governmental Terrorism in Latin America Since the End of the Cold War.” Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago) 25 (2): 3–36. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2005000200001.
   Google Scholar
• Flint, C., and S. M. Radil. 2009. “Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: Situating Al-Qaeda and the Global War on Terror within Geopolitical Trends and Structures.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 50 (2): 150–171. https://doi.org/10.2747/1539-7216.50.2.150.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganor, B. 2002. “Defining Terrorism – is One Man’s Terrorist Another Man’s Freedom Fighter?” Police Practice & Research: An International Journal 3 (4): 287–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/1561426022000032060.
   Google Scholar
• Global Terrorism Index: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism. 2022. Sydney, March. https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/GTI-2022-web-04112022.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalbo, F. E., and I. Julián Canseco. 2019. De Iguala a Ayotzinapa: La escena y el crimen. Ciudad de México: Grano de Sal.
   Google Scholar
• Grayson, G. W. 2011. La Familia Drug Cartel: Implications for US-Mexican Security. Morrisville: Lulu Press.
   Google Scholar
• Green, W. J. 2015. A History of Political Murder: Killing the Messengers of Change. New York: SUNY Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guevara, C. 1985. Guerrilla Warfare. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, A. 2023. “Right-Wing Waves: Applying the Four Waves Theory to Transnational and Transhistorical Right-Wing Threat Trends.” Terrorism and Political Violence 35 (1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1856818.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Held, V. 2008. How Terrorism is Wrong: Morality and Political Violence. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Herman, E., and G. O’Sullivan. 1989. The “Terrorism” Industry: The Experts and Institutions That Shape Our View of Terror. New York: Pantheon Books.
   Google Scholar
• Hess, J., H. Dolan, P. John, and P. Falkenstein. 2020. “The Fifth Wave of Modern Terrorism.” American Intelligence Journal 37 (2): 128–138.
   Google Scholar
• Higgins, R., and M. Flory, eds. 1997. Terrorism and International Law. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, B. 2017. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Holmes, J. 2015. “The Urban Guerrilla, Terrorism, and State Terror in Latin America.” In The Routledge History of Terrorism, edited by R. Law, 284–296. Milton Park: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Honig, O., and I. Yahel. 2019. “A Fifth Wave of Terrorism? The Emergence of Terrorist Semi-States.” Terrorism and Political Violence 31 (6): 1210–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017.1330201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins, J. P. 2023. “Terrorism.” The Encyclopedia Britannica, September 1. https://www.britannica.com/topic/terrorism.
   Google Scholar
• Jensen, R. B. 2009. “The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880–1930s.” Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (1): 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802544862.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalyvas, S. N. 2019. “The Landscape of Political Violence.” In The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism, edited by E. Chenoweth, et al., 15–24. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan, J. 2007. “The Fifth Wave: The New Tribalism?” Terrorism and Political Violence 19 (4): 545–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550701606564.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan, J. 2016. “A Strained Criticism of Wave Theory.” Terrorism and Political Violence 28 (2): 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowles, G. J. 2008. “Threat Analysis: Organized Crime and Narco-Terrorism in Northern Mexico.” Military Review 88 (1): 73–84.
   Google Scholar
• Laqueur, W. 1987. The Age of Terrorism. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
   Google Scholar
• Levitt, G. 1986. “Is Terrorism Worth Defining.” Ohio Northern University Law Review 13 (1): 97–115.
   Google Scholar
• Levitt, M. 2013. Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon’s Party of God. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Livingstone, N. C. 1982. The War Against Terrorism. Lexington: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Lomnitz, C. 2019. “The Ethos and Telos of Michoacán’s Knights Templar.” Representations 147 (1): 96–123. https://doi.org/10.1525/rep.2019.147.1.96.
   Google Scholar
• Longmire, S. M., and J. P. Longmire. 2008. “Redefining Terrorism: Why Mexican Drug Trafficking is More Than Just Organized Crime Just Organized Crime.” Journal of Strategic Security 1 (1): 35–52. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.1.1.4.
   Google Scholar
• Lopez, G. 1986. “The National Security Ideology as an Impetus to State Terror.” In Government Violence and Repression: An Agenda for Research, edited by M. Stohl and G. A. Lopez, 73–95. New York: Greenwood Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lupsha, P. A. 1989. “Towards an Etiology of Drug Trafficking and Insurgent Relations: The Phenomenon of Narco-Terrorism.” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 13 (2): 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.1989.9688918.
   Google Scholar
• Lupsha, P. A. 1993. “Drug Lords and Narco-Corruption: The Players Change but the Game Continues.” In War on Drugs, edited by A. McCoy and A. Block, 177–195. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Lynn, J. A. 2019. Another Kind of War: The Nature and History of Terrorism. Yale: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mahan, S., and P. L. Griset. 2012. Terrorism in Perspective. New York: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Marshall, D. 2001. “Narco-Terrorism: The New Discovery of an Old Connection.” Cornell International Law Journal 35 (3): 599–604.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McSherry, J. P. 2005. Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Méndez-Gastelumendi, C. 2001. “The Power of Naming, or the Construction of Ethnic and National Identities in Peru: Myth, History and the Iquichanos.” Past & Present 171 (1): 127–160. https://doi.org/10.1093/past/171.1.127.
   Google Scholar
• Méndez-Gastelumendi, C. 2021. “The Paths of Terrorism in Peru. Nineteenth to Twenty-First Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Terrorism, edited by R. English, 420–452. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mercille, J. 2011. “Violent Narco-Cartels or US Hegemony? The Political Economy of the ‘War on drugs’ in Mexico.” Third World Quarterly 32 (9): 1637–1653. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2011.619881.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, G., and P. Richter. 2007. “Colombia Army Chief Linked to Outlaw Militias.” Los Ángeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-mar-25-fg-colombia25-story.html.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, S. D. 2012. “Corruption, Drug Trafficking, and Violence in Mexico.”The.” The Brown Journal of World Affairs 1 (2): 29–43.
   Google Scholar
• Moskalenko, S., and C. McCauley. 2020. Radicalization to Terrorism: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Murphy, J., and E. G. Rivero. 2018. The Image of the River in Latin/O American Literature. Lanham: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Nacos, B. 2016. Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Norton, A. R. 2007. Hezbollah: A Short History. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Orozco Abad, I. 1990. “Los diálogos con el narcotráfico: Historia de la transformación fallida de un delincuente común en un delincuente político.” Análisis Político 11 (1): 28–59.
   Google Scholar
• Parker, T., and N. Sitter. 2016. “The Four Horsemen of Terrorism: It’s Not Waves, It’s Strains.” Terrorism and Political Violence 28 (2): 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez, F. A. 2023. “La Verdad histórica, Ayotzinapa vive.” Debates por la Historia 11 (1): 7–17. https://doi.org/10.54167/debates-por-la-historia.v11i1.1134.
   Google Scholar
• Post, J. M. 2015. “Terrorism and Right-Wing Extremism: The Changing Face of Terrorism and Political Violence in the 21st Century: The Virtual Community of Hatred.” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy 65 (2): 242–271. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijgp.2015.65.2.242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Primoratz, I. 2013. Terrorism: A Philosophical Investigation. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Proshyn, D. 2015. “Breaking the Waves: How the Phenomenon of European Jihadism Militates Against the Wave Theory of Terrorism.” International Studies Interdisciplinary Political and Cultural Journal 17 (1): 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1515/ipcj-2015-0007.
   Google Scholar
• Quillen, C. 2002. “A Historical Analysis of Mass Casualty Bombers.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 25 (5): 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100290101197.
   Google Scholar
• Radil, S., and J. Castan Pinos. 2019. “Reexamining the Four Waves of Modern Terrorism: A Territorial Interpretation.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 45 (4): 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2019.1657310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 1983. “Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions.” American Political Science Review 78 (3): 658–677. https://doi.org/10.2307/1961835.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 1996. “Editorial: The Media and Terrorism: Implications of the Unabomber Case.” Terrorism and Political Violence 8 (1): 7–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546559608427329.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 2001. “The Fourth Wave: September 11 in the History of Terrorism.” Current History 100 (650): 419–424. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2001.100.650.419.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 2004. “The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism.” In Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy, edited by A. K. Cronin and J. M. Ludes, 46–73. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 2016. “It is Waves, Not Strains.” Terrorism and Political Violence 28 (2): 217–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 2021. “The Capitol Attack and the 5th Terrorism Wave.” Terrorism and Political Violence 33 (5): 912–916. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2021.1932338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. C. 2022. Waves of Global Terrorism: From 1879 to the Present. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rasler, K., and W. R. Thompson. 2009. “Looking for Waves of Terrorism.” Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (1): 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802544425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raza Jalil, M. 2021. “The Rise of the Fifth Wave of Global Terrorism (Islamophobia).” Margalla Papers 25 (2): 14–22. https://doi.org/10.54690/margallapapers.25.2.69.
   Google Scholar
• Rempe, D. M. 1995. “Guerrillas, Bandits, and Independent Republics: US Counter‐Insurgency Efforts in Colombia 1959–1965.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 6 (3): 304–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592319508423115.
   Google Scholar
• Rummel, R. J. 2017. Death by Government:Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Safford, F., and M. Palacios. 2002. Colombia: Fragmented Land, Divided Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sandler, T. 2018. Terrorism: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schmid, A. P. 2023. “Defining Terrorism.” ICCT Report, 1-44. https://www.icct.nl/sites/default/files/2023-03/Schmidt%20-%20Defining%20Terrorism_1.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Sedgwick, M. 2007. “Inspiration and the Origins of Global Waves of Terrorism.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 30 (2): 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100601101042.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shirk, D. A., and J. Wallman. 2015. “Understanding Mexico’s Drug Violence.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59 (8): 1348–1376. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002715587049.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, S. F. 1946. “Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism in South America.” The Hispanic American Historical Review 26 (1): 38–59. https://doi.org/10.1215/00182168-26.1.38.
   Google Scholar
• Sinai, J. 2008. “How to Define Terrorism.” Perspectives on Terrorism 2 (4): 9–11.
   Google Scholar
• Tilly, C. 2004. “Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists.” Sociological Theory 22 (1): 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2004.00200.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Townshend, C. 2002. Terrorism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Townshend, C. 2016. “Wave and Strain.” Terrorism and Political Violence 28 (2): 225–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trinquier, R. 1961a. La guerre moderne. Paris: Editions de la Table Ronde.
   Google Scholar
• Trinquier, R. 1961b. Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group.
   Google Scholar
• Tschantret, J. 2019. “The Old Terrorism: A Dataset, 1860–1969.” International Interactions 45 (5): 933–948. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2019.1649259.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tschantret, J., Y. Yangb, and H. Namb. 2021. “An Analysis of Terrorist Group Formation, 1860—1969.” Defence and Peace Economics 32 (6): 664–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2021.1941549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, M. 1978. Economy and society, Part 1 & 2. California: California University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weinberg, L., A. Pedazhur, and S. Hirsch-Hoefler. 2004. “The Challenges of Conceptualizing Terrorism.” Terrorism and Political Violence 16 (4): 777–794. https://doi.org/10.1080/095465590899768.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, P. 2012. “The Terrorism Debate Over Mexican Drug Trafficking Violence, Terrorism and Political Violence.” Terrorism and Political Violence 24 (2): 259–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2011.653019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, T. C. 2007. State Terrorism in Latin America: Chile, Argentina, and International Human Rights. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Zeidan, S. 2005. “Agreeing to Disagree: Cultural Relativism and the Difficulty of Defining Terrorism in a Post-911 World.” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 29 (2): 215–232.
   Google Scholar