1,225
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Urbanicity and psychotic disorders: Facts and hypotheses

, , , &
Pages 122-138 | Received 27 Jul 2023, Accepted 16 Oct 2023, Published online: 23 Nov 2023

References

  • Allardyce J, Gilmour H, Atkinson J, Rapson T, Bishop J, McCreadie RG. 2005. Social fragmentation, deprivation and urbanicity: relation to first-admission rates for psychoses. Br J Psychiatry. 187(5):401–406. doi: 10.1192/bjp.187.5.401.
  • Amad A, Guardia D, Salleron J, Thomas P, Roelandt J-L, Vaiva G. 2013. Increased prevalence of psychotic disorders among third-generation migrants: results from the French Mental Health in General Population Survey. Schizophr Res. 147(1):193–195. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.03.011.
  • Andreasson S, Engström A, Allebeck P, Rydberg U. 1987. Cannabis and schizophrenia: a Longitudinal Study of Swedish Conscripts. Lancet. 2(8574):1483–1486. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)92620-1.
  • Antonsen S, Mok P, Webb R, Mortensen PB, McGrath JJ, Agerbo E, Brandt J, Geels C, Christensen J, Pedersen CB. 2020. Exposure to air pollution during childhood and risk of developing schizophrenia: a national cohort study. Lancet Planet Health. 4(2):e64–e73. doi: 10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30004-8.
  • Bardol O, Grot S, Oh H, Poulet E, Zeroug-Vial H, Brunelin J, Leaune E. 2020. Perceived ethnic discrimination as a risk factor for psychotic symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 50(7):1077–1089. doi: 10.1017/S003329172000094X.
  • Beards S, Gayer-Anderson C, Borges S, Dewey ME, Fisher HL, Morgan C. 2013. Life events and psychosis: a review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 39(4):740–747. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbt065.
  • Bécares L, Nazroo J, Stafford M. 2009. The buffering effects of ethnic density on experienced racism and health. Health Place. 15(3):670–678.
  • Benros ME, Nielsen PR, Nordentoft M, Eaton WW, Dalton SO, Mortensen PB. 2011. Autoimmune diseases and severe infections as risk factors for schizophrenia: a 30-year population-based register study. Am J Psychiatry. 168(12):1303–1310. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11030516.
  • Bernardini F, Trezzi R, Quartesan R, Attademo L. 2020. Air pollutants and daily hospital admissions for psychiatric care: a review. Psychiatr Serv. 71(12):1270–1276. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201800565.
  • Binbay T, Drukker M, Elbi H, Tanık FA, Özkınay F, Onay H, Zağlı N, van Os J, Alptekin K. 2012. Testing the psychosis continuum: differential impact of genetic and nongenetic risk factors and comorbid psychopathology across the entire spectrum of psychosis. Schizophr Bull. 38(5):992–1002. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbr003.
  • Boers S, Hagoort K, Scheepers F, Helbich M. 2018. Does residential green and blue space promote recovery in psychotic disorders? A cross-sectional study in the Province of Utrecht, The Netherlands. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 15(10):2195. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15102195.
  • Bourque F, van der Ven E, Malla A. 2011. A meta-analysis of the risk for psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation immigrants. Psychol Med. 41(5):897–910. doi: 10.1017/S0033291710001406.
  • Buoli M, Grassi S, Caldiroli A, Carnevali GS, Mucci F, Iodice S, Cantone L, Pergoli L, Bollati V. 2018. Is there a link between air pollution and mental disorders? Environ Int. 118:154–168. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.05.044.
  • Cantor-Graae E, Zolkowska K, McNeil TF. 2005. Increased risk of psychotic disorder among immigrants in Malmö: a 3-year first-contact study. Psychol Med. 35(8):1155–1163. doi: 10.1017/s0033291705004721.
  • Castillejos MC, Martín-Pérez C, Moreno-Küstner B. 2018. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the incidence of psychotic disorders: the distribution of rates and the influence of gender, urbanicity, immigration and socio-economic level. Psychol Med. 48(13):2101–2115. doi: 10.1017/S0033291718000235.
  • Chan KY, Zhao F-F, Meng S, Demaio AR, Reed C, Theodoratou E, Campbell H, Wang W, Rudan I. 2015. Urbanization and the prevalence of schizophrenia in China between 1990 and 2010. World Psychiatry. 14(2):251–252. doi: 10.1002/wps.20222.
  • Charlson FJ, Ferrari AJ, Santomauro DF, Diminic S, Stockings E, Scott JG, McGrath JJ, Whiteford HA. 2018. Global epidemiology and burden of schizophrenia: findings from the global burden of disease study 2016. Schizophr Bull. 44(6):1195–1203. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sby058.
  • Chien I-C, Chou Y-J, Lin C-H, Bih S-H, Chou P, Chang H-J. 2004. Prevalence and incidence of schizophrenia among national health insurance enrollees in Taiwan, 1996–2001. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 58(6):611–618. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2004.01311.x.
  • Coid JW, Hu J, Kallis C, Ping Y, Zhang J, Hu Y, Zhang T, Gonzalez R, Ullrich S, Jones PB, et al. 2018. Urban birth, urban living, and work migrancy: differential effects on psychotic experiences among young Chinese men. Schizophr Bull. 44(5):1123–1132. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbx152.
  • Colodro-Conde L, Couvy-Duchesne B, Whitfield JB, Streit F, Gordon S, Kemper KE, Yengo L, Zheng Z, Trzaskowski M, de Zeeuw EL, et al. 2018. Association between population density and genetic risk for schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry. 75(9):901–910. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1581.
  • Coughlin LN, Bonar EE, Bohnert KM, Jannausch M, Walton MA, Blow FC, Ilgen MA. 2019. Changes in urban and rural cigarette smoking and cannabis use from 2007 to 2017 in adults in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depend. 205:107699. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107699.
  • Dalman C, Allebeck P, Gunnell D, Harrison G, Kristensson K, Lewis G, Lofving S, Rasmussen F, Wicks S, Karlsson H. 2008. Infections in the CNS during childhood and the risk of subsequent psychotic illness: a cohort study of more than one million Swedish subjects. Am J Psychiatry. 165(1):59–65. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07050740.
  • Devereux G, Faris RE, Dunham HW. 1940. Mental disorders in Urban areas. An ecological study of schizophrenia and other psychoses. Psychoanal Rev. 27(2):251–252.
  • DeVylder J, Anglin D, Munson MR, Nishida A, Oh H, Marsh J, Narita Z, Bareis N, Fedina L. 2023. Ethnoracial variation in risk for psychotic experiences. Schizophr Bull. 49(2):385–396. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbac171.
  • DeVylder JE, Kelleher I, Lalane M, Oh H, Link BG, Koyanagi A. 2018. Association of urbanicity with psychosis in low- and middle-income countries. JAMA Psychiatry. 75(7):678–686. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0577.
  • Di Forti M, Quattrone D, Freeman TP, Tripoli G, Gayer-Anderson C, Quigley H, Rodriguez V, Jongsma HE, Ferraro L, La Cascia C, et al. 2019. The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe (EU-GEI): a multicentre case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry. 6(5):427–436. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30048-3.
  • Eaton S, Harrap B, Downey L, Thien K, Bowtell M, Bardell-Williams M, Ratheesh A, McGorry P, O’Donoghue B. 2019. Incidence of treated first episode psychosis from an Australian early intervention service and its association with neighbourhood characteristics. Schizophr Res. 209:206–211. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.04.017.
  • Engemann K, Pedersen CB, Agerbo E, Arge L, Børglum AD, Erikstrup C, Hertel O, Hougaard DM, McGrath JJ, Mors O, et al. 2020. Association between childhood green space, genetic liability, and the incidence of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 46(6):1629–1637. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbaa058.
  • Engemann K, Pedersen CB, Arge L, Tsirogiannis C, Mortensen PB, Svenning J-C. 2018. Childhood exposure to green space – A novel risk-decreasing mechanism for schizophrenia? Schizophr Res. 199:142–148. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.03.026.
  • Eurostat. 2015. People in the EU: who are we and how do we live? – 2015. Luxembourg: publications Office of the European Union.
  • Faris R, Dunham H. 1939. Mental disorders in urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Fett A-KJ, Lemmers-Jansen ILJ, Krabbendam L. 2019. Psychosis and urbanicity: a review of the recent literature from epidemiology to neurourbanism. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 32(3):232–241. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000486.
  • Font H, Roelandt J-L, Behal H, Geoffroy P-A, Pignon B, Amad A, Simioni N, Vaiva G, Thomas P, Duhamel A, et al. 2018. Prevalence and predictors of no lifetime utilization of mental health treatment among people with mental disorders in France: findings from the ‘Mental Health in General Population’ (MHGP) survey. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 53(6):567–576. doi: 10.1007/s00127-018-1507-0.
  • Gage SH, Jones HJ, Burgess S, Bowden J, Smith GD, Zammit S, Munafò MR. 2017. Assessing causality in associations between Cannabis use and schizophrenia risk: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Psychol Med. 47(5):971–980. doi: 10.1017/S0033291716003172.
  • Gao Q, Xu Q, Guo X, Fan H, Zhu H. 2017. Particulate matter air pollution associated with hospital admissions for mental disorders: a time-series study in Beijing, China. Eur Psychiatry. 44:68–75. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.02.492.
  • Green MF, Horan WP, Lee J. 2015. Social cognition in schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci. 16(10):620–631. doi: 10.1038/nrn4005.
  • Grimes DA, Schulz KF. 2002. Descriptive studies: what they can and cannot do. Lancet. 359(9301):145–149. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07373-7.
  • Hasin DS, Shmulewitz D, Sarvet AL. 2019. Time trends in US cannabis use and cannabis use disorders overall and by sociodemographic subgroups: a narrative review and new findings. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 45(6):623–643. doi: 10.1080/00952990.2019.1569668.
  • Heinz A, Deserno L, Reininghaus U. 2013. Urbanicity, social adversity and psychosis. World Psychiatry. 12(3):187–197. doi: 10.1002/wps.20056.
  • Hollander A-C, Dal H, Lewis G, Magnusson C, Kirkbride JB, Dalman C. 2016. Refugee migration and risk of schizophrenia and other non-affective psychoses: cohort study of 1.3 million people in Sweden. BMJ. 352:i1030. doi: 10.1136/bmj.i1030.
  • Horsdal HT, Agerbo E, McGrath JJ, Vilhjálmsson BJ, Antonsen S, Closter AM, Timmermann A, Grove J, Mok PLH, Webb RT, et al. 2019. Association of childhood exposure to nitrogen dioxide and polygenic risk score for schizophrenia with the risk of developing schizophrenia. JAMA Netw Open. 2(11):e1914401. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.14401.
  • Hudson CG. 2005. Socioeconomic status and mental illness: tests of the social causation and selection hypotheses. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 75(1):3–18. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.75.1.3.
  • Hyde RW, Kingsley LV. 1944. Studies in medical sociology: the relation of mental disorders to population density. N Engl J Med. 231(17):571–577. doi: 10.1056/NEJM194410262311701.
  • Ioannidis JPA. 2019. Air pollution as cause of mental disease: appraisal of the evidence. PLOS Biol. 17(8):e3000370. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000370.
  • Jongsma HE, Gayer-Anderson C, Lasalvia A, Quattrone D, Mulè A, Szöke A, Selten J-P, Turner C, Arango C, Tarricone I, et al. 2018. Treated incidence of psychotic disorders in the multinational EU-GEI study. JAMA Psychiatry. 75(1):36–46. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3554.
  • Jongsma HE, Turner C, Kirkbride JB, Jones PB. 2019. International incidence of psychotic disorders, 2002–17: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health. 4(5):e229–e244. doi: 10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30056-8.
  • Khan A, Plana-Ripoll O, Antonsen S, Brandt J, Geels C, Landecker H, Sullivan PF, Pedersen CB, Rzhetsky A. 2019. Environmental pollution is associated with increased risk of psychiatric disorders in the US and Denmark. PLoS Biol. 17(8):e3000353. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000353.
  • Khandaker GM, Barnett JH, White IR, Jones PB. 2011. A quantitative meta-analysis of population-based studies of premorbid intelligence and schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 132(2–3):220–227. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.06.017.
  • Khandaker GM, Zimbron J, Dalman C, Lewis G, Jones PB. 2012. Childhood infection and adult schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of population-based studies. Schizophr Res. 139(1-3):161–168. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.05.023.
  • Kirkbride JB, Boydell J, Ploubidis GB, Morgan C, Dazzan P, McKenzie K, Murray RM, Jones PB. 2008. Testing the association between the incidence of schizophrenia and social capital in an urban area. Psychol Med. 38(8):1083–1094. doi: 10.1017/S0033291707002085.
  • Kirkbride JB, Hameed Y, Ankireddypalli G, Ioannidis K, Crane CM, Nasir M, Kabacs N, Metastasio A, Jenkins O, Espandian A, et al. 2017. The epidemiology of first-episode psychosis in early intervention in psychosis services: findings from the Social Epidemiology of Psychoses in East Anglia [SEPEA] study. Am J Psychiatry. 174(2):143–153. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16010103.
  • Kirkbride JB, Hameed Y, Ioannidis K, Ankireddypalli G, Crane CM, Nasir M, Kabacs N, Metastasio A, Jenkins O, Espandian A, et al. 2017. Ethnic minority status, age-at-immigration and psychosis risk in rural environments: evidence from the SEPEA study. Schizophr Bull. 43(6):1251–1261. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbx010.
  • Kirkbride JB, Jones PB, Ullrich S, Coid JW. 2014. Social deprivation, inequality, and the neighborhood-level incidence of psychotic syndromes in East London. Schizophr Bull. 40(1):169–180. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs151.
  • Krabbendam L, van Vugt M, Conus P, Söderström O, Abrahamyan Empson L, van Os J, Fett A-KJ. 2021. Understanding urbanicity: how interdisciplinary methods help to unravel the effects of the city on mental health. Psychol Med. 51(7):1099–1110. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720000355.
  • Ku BS, Addington J, Bearden CE, Cadenhead KS, Cannon TD, Compton MT, Cornblatt BA, Druss BG, Keshavan M, Mathalon DH, et al. 2022. The associations between area-level residential instability and gray matter volumes from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS) consortium. Schizophr Res. 241:1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2021.12.050.
  • Ku BS, Compton MT, Walker EF, Druss BG. 2021. Social fragmentation and schizophrenia: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 83(1):21r13941. doi: 10.4088/JCP.21r13941.
  • Ku BS, Pauselli L, Manseau M, Compton MT. 2020. Neighborhood-level predictors of age at onset and duration of untreated psychosis in first-episode psychotic disorders. Schizophr Res. 218:247–254. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.036.
  • Ku BS, Walker EF, Druss BG, Murray CR, Compton MT. 2023. Residential instability during adolescence predicts earlier age at onset of psychosis: the moderating role of extraversion. Early Interv Psychiatry. 17(5):527–531. doi: 10.1111/eip.13375.
  • Kuepper R, van Os J, Lieb R, Wittchen H-U, Henquet C. 2011. Do cannabis and urbanicity co-participate in causing psychosis? Evidence from a 10-year follow-up cohort study. Psychol Med. 41(10):2121–2129. doi: 10.1017/S0033291711000511.
  • Leiva MAG, Santibañez DA, Ibarra SE, Matus PC, Seguel R. 2013. A five-year study of particulate matter (PM2.5) and cerebrovascular diseases. Environ Pollut. 181:1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.057.
  • Lieberman JA, First MB. 2018. Psychotic disorders. N Engl J Med. 379(3):270–280. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1801490.
  • Linscott RJ, van Os J. 2013. An updated and conservative systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological evidence on psychotic experiences in children and adults: on the pathway from proneness to persistence to dimensional expression across mental disorders. Psychol Med. 43(6):1133–1149. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712001626.
  • Lofors J, Sundquist K. 2007. Low-linking social capital as a predictor of mental disorders: a cohort study of 4.5 million Swedes. Soc Sci Med. 64(1):21–34. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.08.024.
  • March D, Hatch SL, Morgan C, Kirkbride JB, Bresnahan M, Fearon P, Susser E. 2008. Psychosis and place. Epidemiol Rev. 30(1):84–100. doi: 10.1093/epirev/mxn006.
  • Marconi A, Di Forti M, Lewis CM, Murray RM, Vassos E. 2016. Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull. 42(5):1262–1269. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw003.
  • Maxwell JM, Coleman JRI, Breen G, Vassos E. 2021. Association between genetic risk for psychiatric disorders and the probability of living in Urban settings. JAMA Psychiatry. 78(12):1355–1364. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2983.
  • McKenzie K, Whitley R, Weich S. 2002. Social capital and mental health. Br J Psychiatry. 181(4):280–283. doi: 10.1192/bjp.181.4.280.
  • Mohammadi MJ, Dehaghi BF, Mansourimoghadam S, Sharhani A, Amini P, Ghanbari S. 2022. Cardiovascular disease, mortality and exposure to particulate matter (PM): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Reviews on Environmental Health. (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36302126/). doi: 10.1515/reveh-2022-0090.
  • Moore JR, Chen Q, Choi NG. 2021. Cannabis use, use frequency, and use disorder in large metropolitan, small metropolitan, and nonmetropolitan areas. Drug Alcohol Depend. 221:108631. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108631.
  • Moore THM, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TRE, Jones PB, Burke M, Lewis G. 2007. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet. 370(9584):319–328. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3.
  • Münzel T, Sørensen M, Hahad O, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Daiber A. 2023. The contribution of the exposome to the burden of cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 20(10):651–669. doi: 10.1038/s41569-023-00873-3.
  • Newbury J, Arseneault L, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Odgers CL, Fisher HL. 2016. Why are children in urban neighborhoods at increased risk for psychotic symptoms? Findings from a UK longitudinal cohort study. Schizophr Bull. 42(6):1372–1383. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw052.
  • Newbury JB, Arseneault L, Beevers S, Kitwiroon N, Roberts S, Pariante CM, Kelly FJ, Fisher HL. 2019. Association of air pollution exposure with psychotic experiences during adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry. 76(6):614–623. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0056.
  • Newbury JB, Arseneault L, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Odgers CL, Belsky DW, Sugden K, Williams B, Ambler AP, Matthews T, et al. 2022. Association between genetic and socioenvironmental risk for schizophrenia during upbringing in a UK longitudinal cohort. Psychol Med. 52(8):1527–1537. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720003347.
  • Ngamini Ngui A, Cohen AA, Courteau J, Lesage A, Fleury M-J, Grégoire J-P, Moisan J, Vanasse A. 2013. Does elapsed time between first diagnosis of schizophrenia and migration between health territories vary by place of residence? A survival analysis approach. Health Place. 20:66–74. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.12.003.
  • Nielsen PR, Benros ME, Mortensen PB. 2014. Hospital contacts with infection and risk of schizophrenia: a population-based cohort study with linkage of Danish National Registers. Schizophr Bull. 40(6):1526–1532. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbt200.
  • Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Dadvand P, Márquez S, Bartoll X, Barboza EP, Cirach M, Borrell C, Zijlema WL. 2022. The evaluation of the 3-30-300 green space rule and mental health. Environ Res. 215(Pt 2):114387. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114387.
  • O’Donoghue B, Lyne JP, Renwick L, Lane A, Madigan K, Staines A, O'Callaghan E, Clarke M. 2016. Neighbourhood characteristics and the incidence of first-episode psychosis and duration of untreated psychosis. Psychol Med. 46(7):1367–1378. doi: 10.1017/S003329171500286X.
  • Oh HY, Koyanagi A, DeVylder JE, Link B. 2020. Urban upbringing and psychotic experiences in the United States: a racial and geographic comparison. Psychiatry Res. 293:113372. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113372.
  • Oh HY, Susser E, Koyanagi A, Kelleher I, DeVylder JE. 2020. Urban birth and psychotic experiences in the United States. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 141(2):167–169. doi: 10.1111/acps.13106.
  • van Os J, Hanssen M, Bak M, Bijl RV, Vollebergh W. 2003. Do urbanicity and familial liability coparticipate in causing psychosis? Am J Psychiatry. 160(3):477–482. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.3.477.
  • van Os J, Hanssen M, Bijl R, Vollebergh W. 2001. Prevalence of psychotic disorder and community level of psychotic symptoms: an urban-rural comparison. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 58(7):663–668. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.58.7.663.
  • van Os J, Pedersen CB, Mortensen PB. 2004. Confirmation of synergy between urbanicity and familial liability in the causation of psychosis. Am J Psychiatry. 161(12):2312–2314. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2312.
  • Paksarian D, Trabjerg BB, Merikangas KR, Mors O, Børglum AD, Hougaard DM, McGrath JJ, Pedersen CB, Mortensen PB, Agerbo E. 2018. The role of genetic liability in the association of urbanicity at birth and during upbringing with schizophrenia in Denmark. Psychol Med. 48(2):305–314. doi: 10.1017/S0033291717001696.
  • Patel V, Simbine APF, Soares IC, Weiss HA, Wheeler E. 2007. Prevalence of severe mental and neurological disorders in Mozambique: a population-based survey. Lancet. 370(9592):1055–1060. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61479-2.
  • Pearce J, Rafiq S, Simpson J, Varese F. 2019. Perceived discrimination and psychosis: a systematic review of the literature. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 54(9):1023–1044. doi: 10.1007/s00127-019-01729-3.
  • Pedersen CB. 2015. Persons with schizophrenia migrate towards urban areas due to the development of their disorder or its prodromata. Schizophr Res. 168(1-2):204–208. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.08.028.
  • Pedersen CB, Antonsen S, Timmermann A, Pedersen MG, Ejlskov L, Horsdal HT, Agerbo E, Webb RT, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Sigsgaard T, et al. 2022. Urban-rural differences in schizophrenia risk: multilevel survival analyses of individual- and neighborhood-level indicators, urbanicity and population density in a Danish National Cohort study. Schizophrenia Bulletin Open. 3(1):sgab056. doi: 10.1093/schizbullopen/sgab056.
  • Pedersen CB, Mortensen PB. 2001. Evidence of a dose-response relationship between urbanicity during upbringing and schizophrenia risk. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 58(11):1039–1046. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.58.11.1039.
  • Pedersen CB, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Hertel O, Mortensen PB. 2004. Air pollution from traffic and schizophrenia risk. Schizophr Res. 66(1):83–85. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00062-8.
  • Pignon B, Borel C, Lajnef M, Richard J-R, Szöke A, Hemery F, Leboyer M, Foret G, Schürhoff F. 2022. PM2.5 and PM10 air pollution peaks are associated with emergency department visits for psychotic and mood disorders. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 29(59):88577–88586. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-21964-7.
  • Pignon B, Eaton S, Schürhoff F, Szöke A, McGorry P, O'Donoghue B. 2019. Residential social drift in the two years following a first episode of psychosis. Schizophr Res. 210:323–325. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.06.008.
  • Pignon B, Lajnef M, Kirkbride JB, Peyre H, Ferchiou A, Richard J-R, Baudin G, Tosato S, Jongsma H, de Haan L, et al. 2021. The independent effects of psychosocial stressors on subclinical psychosis: findings from the multinational EU-GEI study. Schizophr Bull. 47(6):1674–1684. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbab060.
  • Pignon B, Peyre H, Ayrolles A, Kirkbride JB, Jamain S, Ferchiou A, Richard JR, Baudin G, Tosato S, Jongsma H, et al. 2022. Genetic and psychosocial stressors have independent effects on the level of subclinical psychosis: findings from the multinational EU-GEI study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 31:e68. doi: 10.1017/S2045796022000464.
  • Pignon B, Schürhoff F, Baudin G, Ferchiou A, Saba G, Richard J-R, Leboyer M, Kirkbride JB, Szöke A. 2016. Spatial distribution of psychotic disorders in an urban area of France: an ecological study. Sci Rep. 6(1):26190. doi: 10.1038/srep26190.
  • Pignon B, Schürhoff F, Baudin G, Tortelli A, Ferchiou A, Saba G, Richard J-R, Pelissolo A, Leboyer M, Szöke A. 2018. Relationship between incidence and prevalence in psychotic disorders: An incidence–prevalence–mortality model. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 27(4):e1719. [accessed 2018 Sep 18] doi: 10.1002/mpr.1719.
  • Pignon B, Schürhoff F, Szöke A, Geoffroy PA, Jardri R, Roelandt J-L, Rolland B, Thomas P, Vaiva G, Amad A. 2018. Sociodemographic and clinical correlates of psychotic symptoms in the general population: findings from the MHGP survey. Schizophr Res. 193:336–342. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.06.053.
  • Pignon B, Szöke A, Forêt G, Pelissolo A, Leboyer M, Schürhoff F. 2020. Air pollution and psychiatric disorders: current and future challenges. Bipolar Disord. 22(5):437–439. doi: 10.1111/bdi.12961.
  • Pingault J-B, O'Reilly PF, Schoeler T, Ploubidis GB, Rijsdijk F, Dudbridge F. 2018. Using genetic data to strengthen causal inference in observational research. Nat Rev Genet. 19(9):566–580. doi: 10.1038/s41576-018-0020-3.
  • Price C, Dalman C, Zammit S, Kirkbride JB. 2018. Association of residential mobility over the life course with nonaffective psychosis in 1.4 million young people in Sweden. JAMA Psychiatry. 75(11):1128–1136. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.2233.
  • Quattrone D, Di Forti M, Gayer-Anderson C, Ferraro L, Jongsma HE, Tripoli G, La Cascia C, La Barbera D, Tarricone I, Berardi D, et al. 2019. Transdiagnostic dimensions of psychopathology at first episode psychosis: findings from the multinational EU-GEI study. Psychol Med. 49(8):1378–1391.,. doi: 10.1017/S0033291718002131.
  • Richardson L, Hameed Y, Perez J, Jones PB, Kirkbride JB. 2018. Association of environment with the risk of developing psychotic disorders in rural populations: findings from the social epidemiology of psychoses in East Anglia study. JAMA Psychiatry. 75(1):75–83. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3582.
  • Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Walker AM. 1980. Concepts of interaction. Am J Epidemiol. 112(4):467–470. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113015.
  • Saha S, Barendregt JJ, Vos T, Whiteford H, McGrath JJ. 2008. Modelling disease frequency measures in schizophrenia epidemiology. Schizophr Res. 104(1-3):246–254. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.05.022.
  • Saha S, Chant DC, Welham J, McGrath JJ. 2005. A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. PLOS Med. 2(5):e141. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020141.
  • Sariaslan A, Larsson H, D'Onofrio B, Långström N, Fazel S, Lichtenstein P. 2015. Does population density and neighborhood deprivation predict schizophrenia? A Nationwide Swedish family-based study of 2.4 million individuals. Schizophr Bull. 41(2):494–502. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbu105.
  • Sartorius N. 2003. Social capital and mental health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 16: S101–S105. doi: 10.1097/00001504-200304002-00015.
  • Schofield P, Thygesen M, Das-Munshi J, Becares L, Cantor-Graae E, Pedersen C, Agerbo E. 2017. Ethnic density, urbanicity and psychosis risk for migrant groups – A population cohort study. Schizophr Res. 190:82–87. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.03.032.
  • Schürhoff F, Pignon B, Lajnef M, Denis R, Rutten B, Morgan C, Murray RM, Leboyer M, van Os J, Szöke A. 2020. Psychotic experiences are associated with paternal age but not with delayed fatherhood in a large, multinational, community sample. Schizophr Bull. 46(5):1327–1334. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbz142.
  • Selten J-P, van der Ven E, Termorshuizen F. 2020. Migration and psychosis: a meta-analysis of incidence studies. Psychol Med. 50(2):303–313. doi: 10.1017/S0033291719000035.
  • Shaw RJ, Atkin K, Bécares L, Albor CB, Stafford M, Kiernan KE, Nazroo JY, Wilkinson RG, Pickett KE. 2012. Impact of ethnic density on adult mental disorders: narrative review. Br J Psychiatry. 201(1):11–19. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.110.083675.
  • Shevlin M, Murphy J, Read J, Mallett J, Adamson G, Houston JE. 2011. Childhood adversity and hallucinations: a community-based study using the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 46(12):1203–1210. doi: 10.1007/s00127-010-0296-x.
  • Smigielski L, Papiol S, Theodoridou A, Heekeren K, Gerstenberg M, Wotruba D, Buechler R, Hoffmann P, Herms S, Adorjan K, et al. 2021. Polygenic risk scores across the extended psychosis spectrum. Transl Psychiatry. 11(1):600. doi: 10.1038/s41398-021-01720-0.
  • Solmi F, Lewis G, Zammit S, Kirkbride JB. 2020. Neighborhood characteristics at birth and positive and negative psychotic symptoms in adolescence: findings from the ALSPAC birth cohort. Schizophr Bull. 46(3):581–591. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbz049.
  • Stieb DM, Berjawi R, Emode M, Zheng C, Salama D, Hocking R, Lyrette N, Matz C, Lavigne E, Shin HH. 2021. Systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies of long term outdoor nitrogen dioxide exposure and mortality. PLOS One. 16(2):e0246451. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246451.
  • Stolk RP, Rosmalen JGM, Postma DS, Boer R. d, Navis G, Slaets JPJ, Ormel J, Wolffenbuttel BHR. 2008. Universal risk factors for multifactorial diseases. Eur J Epidemiol. 23(1):67–74. doi: 10.1007/s10654-007-9204-4.
  • Szöke A, Baudin G, Saba G, Pignon B, Richard J-R, Leboyer M, Schürhoff F. 2015. Prevalence of psychotic disorders in an Urban area of France. BMC Psychiatry. 15(1):204. doi: 10.1186/s12888-015-0588-5.
  • Szöke A, Kirkbride JB, Schürhoff F. 2014. Universal prevention of schizophrenia and surrogate endpoints at population level. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 49(9):1347–1351. doi: 10.1007/s00127-014-0829-9.
  • Szöke A, Pignon B, Baudin G, Tortelli A, Richard J-R, Leboyer M, Schürhoff F. 2016. Small area-level variation in the incidence of psychotic disorders in an urban area in France: an ecological study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 51(7):951–960. doi: 10.1007/s00127-016-1231-6.
  • Temmingh H, Stein DJ, Seedat S, Williams DR. 2011. The prevalence and correlates of hallucinations in a general population sample: findings from the South African Stress and Health Study. Afr J Psychiatry. 14(3):211–217. doi: 10.4314/ajpsy.v14i3.4.
  • Tibber MS, Kirkbride JB, Mutsatsa S, Harrison I, Barnes TRE, Joyce EM, Huddy V. 2019. Are socioenvironmental factors associated with psychotic symptoms in people with first-episode psychosis? A cross-sectional study of a West London clinical sample. BMJ Open. 9(9):e030448. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030448.
  • Tortelli A, Nakamura A, Suprani F, Schürhoff F, Van der Waerden J, Szöke A, Tarricone I, Pignon B. 2018. Subclinical psychosis in adult migrants and ethnic minorities: systematic review and meta-analysis. BJPsych Open. 4(6):510–518. doi: 10.1192/bjo.2018.68.
  • Toulopoulou T, Picchioni M, Mortensen PB, Petersen L. 2017. IQ, the urban environment, and their impact on future schizophrenia risk in men. Schizophr Bull. 43(5):1056–1063. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw147.
  • Tulloch AD, Fearon P, David AS. 2011. Residential mobility among patients admitted to acute psychiatric wards. Health Place. 17(4):859–866. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.05.006.
  • United Nations (UN). 2018. World urbanization prospects 2018. [accessed 2023 Jun 13]. https://population.un.org/wup/.
  • VanderWeele TJ, Knol MJ. 2014. A tutorial on interaction. Epidemiol Methods. 3(1):33–72. doi: 10.1515/em-2013-0005.
  • Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M, Lieverse R, Lataster T, Viechtbauer W, Read J, Os J. v, Bentall RP. 2012. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull. 38(4):661–671. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs050.
  • Vassos E, Agerbo E, Mors O, Pedersen CB. 2016. Urban-rural differences in incidence rates of psychiatric disorders in Denmark. Br J Psychiatry. 208(5):435–440. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.161091.
  • Vassos E, Pedersen CB, Murray RM, Collier DA, Lewis CM. 2012. Meta-analysis of the association of urbanicity with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 38(6):1118–1123. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs096.
  • Veling W, Pot-Kolder R, Counotte J, van Os J, van der Gaag M. 2016. Environmental social stress, paranoia and psychosis liability: a virtual reality study. Schizophr Bull. 42(6):1363–1371. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw031.
  • Veling W, Susser E, van Os J, Mackenbach JP, Selten J-P, Hoek HW. 2008. Ethnic density of neighborhoods and incidence of psychotic disorders among immigrants. Am J Psychiatry. 165(1):66–73. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030423.
  • Verdoux H, van Os J. 2002. Psychotic symptoms in non-clinical populations and the continuum of psychosis. Schizophr Res. 54(1-2):59–65. doi: 10.1016/s0920-9964(01)00352-8.
  • Wang C, Wang Q, Li X, Zhang Y, Wei W, Deng W, Guo W, He L, Tang W, Chen T, et al. 2019. Rural birth/upbringing and childhood adversities are associated with psychotic experiences in university students in China. Schizophr Res. 209:105–112. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.05.009.
  • White AJ, Bradshaw PT, Hamra GB. 2018. Air pollution and breast cancer: a review. Curr Epidemiol Rep. 5(2):92–100. doi: 10.1007/s40471-018-0143-2.
  • Wimberley T, Pedersen CB, MacCabe JH, Støvring H, Astrup A, Sørensen HJ, Horsdal HT, Mortensen PB, Gasse C. 2016. Inverse association between urbanicity and treatment resistance in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 174(1-3):150–155. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2016.03.021.
  • Wohl M, Gorwood P. 2007. Paternal ages below or above 35 years old are associated with a different risk of schizophrenia in the offspring. Eur Psychiatry. 22(1):22–26. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2006.08.007.
  • Woolway GE, Smart SE, Lynham AJ, Lloyd JL, Owen MJ, Jones IR, Walters JTR, Legge SE. 2022. Schizophrenia polygenic risk and experiences of childhood adversity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 48(5):967–980. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbac049.
  • World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. [accessed 2020 Oct 16]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health.