References

• Amnesty International. (n.d.). Refugees, asylum-seekers and migrants. https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/refugees-asylum-seekers-and-migrants/
   Google Scholar
• Barbieri, A., Visco-Comandini, F., Alunni Fegatelli, D., Schepisi, C., Russo, V., Calò, F., Dessì, A., Cannella, G., & Stellacci, A. (2019). Complex trauma, PTSD and complex PTSD in African refugees. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1700621. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1700621
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaton, D. E., Bombardier, C., Guillemin, F., & Ferraz, M. B. (2000). Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine, 25(24), 3186–3191. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200012150-00014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauducel, A., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2006). On the performance of maximum likelihood versus means and variance adjusted weighted least squares estimation in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 13(2), 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1302_2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Ezra, M., Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N. P., Lueger-Schuster, B., & Shevlin, M. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) as per ICD-11 proposals: A population study in Israel. Depression and Anxiety, 35(3), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackmore, R., Boyle, J. A., Fazel, M., Ranasinha, S., Gray, K. M., Fitzgerald, G., Misso, M., & Gibson-Helm, M. (2020). The prevalence of mental illness in refugees and asylum seekers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine, 17(9), e1003337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogic, M., Njoku, A., & Priebe, S. (2015). Long-term mental health of war-refugees: A systematic literature review. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-015-0064-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Maercker, A., Bryant, R. A., Humayun, A., Jones, L. M., Kagee, A., Rousseau, C., Somasundaram, D., Suzuki, Y., Wessely, S., van Ommeren, M., & Reed, G. M. (2017). A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Shevlin, M., Brewin, C. R., Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N. P., Maercker, A., Karatzias, T., & Hyland, P. (2018). The International Trauma Questionnaire: Development of a self-report measure of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 536–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12956
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dancey, C. P., & Reidy, J. (2007). Statistics without maths for psychology (4th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Frost, R., Hyland, P., McCarthy, A., Halpin, R., Shevlin, M., & Murphy, J. (2019). The complexity of trauma exposure and response: Profiling PTSD and CPTSD among a refugee sample. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(2), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbar, O. (2020). Examining the boundaries between ICD-11 PTSD/CPTSD and depression and anxiety symptoms: A network analysis perspective. Journal of Affective Disorders, 262, 429–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.060
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, M., Vægter, H. B., Cloitre, M., & Andersen, T. E. (2021). Validation of the Danish International Trauma Questionnaire for posttraumatic stress disorder in chronic pain patients using clinician-rated diagnostic interviews. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1880747. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1880747
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haselgruber, A., Sölva, K., & Lueger-Schuster, B. (2020). Symptom structure of ICD-11 complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) in trauma-exposed foster children: Examining the International Trauma Questionnaire – Child and Adolescent version (ITQ-CA). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1818974. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1818974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hecker, T., Huber, S., Maier, T., & Maercker, A. (2018). Differential associations among PTSD and complex PTSD symptoms and traumatic experiences and postmigration difficulties in a culturally diverse refugee sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 31(6), 795–804. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, G. W. K., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Chien, W. T., Inoue, S., Yang, P. J., Chen, F. H., Chan, A. C. Y., & Karatzias, T. (2020). The validity of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in East Asian cultures: Findings with young adults from China, Hong Kong, Japan, and Taiwan. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1717826. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1717826
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyland, P., Ceannt, R., Daccache, F., Abou Daher, R., Sleiman, J., Gilmore, B., Byrne, S., Shevlin, M., Murphy, J., & Vallières, F. (2018). Are posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex-PTSD distinguishable within a treatment-seeking sample of Syrian refugees living in Lebanon? Global Mental Health, 5, e14. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2018.2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Downes, A. J., Jumbe, S., Karatzias, T., Bisson, J. I., & Roberts, N. P. (2017). Validation of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 136(3), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Trauma Consortium. (n.d.). International Trauma Questionnaire. https://www.traumameasuresglobal.com/itq
   Google Scholar
• Jöreskog, K. G. (1999). How large can a standardized coefficient be? Unpublished Report. http://www.statmodel.com/download/Joreskog.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Chatterji, S., Lee, S., Ormel, J., Ustün, T. B., & Wang, P. S. (2009). The global burden of mental disorders: An update from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale, 18(1), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1121189X00001421
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenen, K. C., Ratanatharathorn, A., Ng, L., McLaughlin, K. A., Bromet, E. J., Stein, D. J., Karam, E. G., Meron Ruscio, A., Benjet, C., Scott, K., Atwoli, L., Petukhova, M., Lim, C. C. W., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Al-Hamzawi, A., Alonso, J., Bunting, B., Ciutan, M., de Girolamo, G. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the world mental health surveys. Psychological Medicine, 47(13), 2260–2274. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717000708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, J., Wang, W., Hu, W., Yuan, Z., Zhou, R., Zhang, W., & Qu, Z. (2021). Validation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD in Chinese children as per the ICD-11 proposals using the International Trauma Questionnaire. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1888525. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1888525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liddell, B. J., Nickerson, A., Felmingham, K. L., Malhi, G. S., Cheung, J., Den, M., Askovic, M., Coello, M., Aroche, J., & Bryant, R. A. (2019). Complex posttraumatic stress disorder symptom profiles in traumatized refugees. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6), 822–832. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maley, W. (2002). The Afghanistan Wars. Red Globe Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4039-1840-6
   Google Scholar
• Mellor, R., Werner, A., Moussa, B., Mohsin, M., Jayasuriya, R., & Tay, A. K. (2021). Prevalence, predictors and associations of complex post-traumatic stress disorder with common mental disorders in refugees and forcibly displaced populations: A systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1863579. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1863579
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, K. E., Omidian, P., Quraishy, A. S., Quraishy, N., Nasiry, M. N., Nasiry, S., Karyar, N. M., & Yaqubi, A. A. (2006). The Afghan Symptom Checklist: A culturally grounded approach to mental health assessment in a conflict zone. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollica, R. F., Cardozo, B. L., Osofsky, H., Raphael, B., Ager, A., & Salama, P. (2004). Mental health in complex emergencies. The Lancet, 364(9450), 2058–2067. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17519-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollica, R. F., Caspi-Yavin, Y., Bollini, P., Truong, T., Tor, S., & Lavelle, J. (1992). The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(2), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199202000-00008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollica, R. F., Caspi-Yavin, Y., Lavelle, J., Tor, S., Yang, T., Chan, S., Pham, T., Ryan, A., & de Marneffe, D. (1996). The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ) manual: Cambodian, Laotian, and Vietnamese versions. Torture, 6(Suppl. 1), 19–33. https://irct.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Volume-6-No.-1-supplementum.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Mollica, R. F., Wyshak, G., de Marneffe, D., Khuon, F., & Lavelle, J. (1987). Indochinese versions of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25: A screening instrument for the psychiatric care of refugees. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(4), 497–500. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.4.497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus User’s Guide (7th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Nawid, S. (2012). Language policy in Afghanistan: Linguistic diversity and national unity. In H. F. Schiffman (Ed.), Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and its Neighbors (pp. 33). Brill.
   Google Scholar
• Nickerson, A., Cloitre, M., Bryant, R. A., Schnyder, U., Morina, N., & Schick, M. (2016). The factor structure of complex posttraumatic stress disorder in traumatized refugees. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 33253. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v7.33253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nine, S. B., Najm, A. F., Allan, E. B., & Gronholm, P. C. (2022). Mental health stigma among community members in Afghanistan: A cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 68(7), 1470–1485. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640211036169
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owczarek, M., Ben-Ezra, M., Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Vallieres, F., & Shevlin, M. (2020). Testing the factor structure of the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ) in African community samples from Kenya, Ghana, and Nigeria. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 25(4), 348–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2019.1689718
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–163. https://doi.org/10.2307/271063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raykov, T. (1997). Estimation of composite reliability for congeneric measures. Applied Psychological Measurement, 21(2), 173–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/01466216970212006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redican, E., Nolan, E., Hyland, P., Cloitre, M., McBride, O., Karatzias, T., Murphy, J., & Shevlin, M. (2021). A systematic literature review of factor analytic and mixture models of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 79, 102381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhemtulla, M., Brosseau-Liard, PÉ, & Savalei, V. (2012). When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shevlin, M., Hyland, P., Karatzias, T., Fyvie, C., Roberts, N., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R., & Cloitre, M. (2017). Alternative models of disorders of traumatic stress based on the new ICD-11 proposals. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 135(5), 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steel, Z., Silove, D., Bird, K., McGorry, P., & Mohan, P. (1999). Pathways from war trauma to posttraumatic stress symptoms among Tamil asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(3), 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024710902534
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallières, F., Ceannt, R., Daccache, F., Abou Daher, R., Sleiman, J., Gilmore, B., Byrne, S., Shevlin, M., Murphy, J., & Hyland, P. (2018). ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD amongst Syrian refugees in Lebanon: The factor structure and the clinical utility of the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 547–557. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12973
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vang, M. L., Dokkedahl, S. B., Løkkegaard, S. S., Jakobsen, A. V., Møller, L., Auning-Hansen, M. A., & Elklit, A. (2021). Validation of ICD-11 PTSD and DSO using the International Trauma Questionnaire in five clinical samples recruited in Denmark. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1894806. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1894806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2018). International Classification of Diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th edn). https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en
   Google Scholar