References

• American Psychological Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm04
   Google Scholar
• Badger, K., Royse, D., & Craig, C. (2008). Hospital social workers and indirect trauma exposure: An exploratory study of contributing factors. Health & Social Work, 33(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/33.1.63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman, A. H., Bergman, H., Palmstierna, T., & Schlyter, F. (2005). Evaluation of the Drug Use Disorders Identification Test (DUDIT) in criminal justice and detoxification settings and in a Swedish population sample. European Addiction Research, 11(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1159/000081413
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonumwezi, J. L., Tramutola, D., Lawrence, J., Kobezak, H. M., & Lowe, S. R. (2022). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, work-related trauma exposure, and substance use in first responders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 237, 109439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briere, J., Weathers, F. W., & Runtz, M. (2005). Is dissociation a multidimensional construct? Data from the Multiscale Dissociation Inventory. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(3), 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campion, W. M., & Rubin, D. B. (1989). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, 26(4), 485. https://doi.org/10.2307/3172772
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carleton, N. R., Afifi, T. O., Taillieu, T., Turner, S., Krakauer, R., Anderson, G. S., MacPhee, R. S., Ricciardelli, R., Cramm, H. A., Groll, D., & McCreary, D. R. (2019). Exposures to potentially traumatic events among public safety personnel in Canada. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 51(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carleton, N. R., Afifi, T. O., Turner, S., Taillieu, T., Duranceau, S., LeBouthillier, D. M., Sareen, J., Ricciardelli, R., MacPhee, R. S., Groll, D., Hozempa, K., Brunet, A., Weekes, J. R., Griffiths, C. T., Abrams, K. J., Jones, N. A., Beshai, S., Cramm, H. A., Dobson, K. S., … Asmundson, G. J. G. (2018a). Mental disorder symptoms among public safety personnel in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743717723825
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carleton, N. R., Afifi, T. O., Turner, S., Taillieu, T., Duranceau, S., LeBouthillier, D. M., Sareen, J., Ricciardelli, R., MacPhee, R. S., Groll, D., Hozempa, K., Brunet, A., Weekes, J. R., Griffiths, C. T., Abrams, K. J., Jones, N. A., Beshai, S., Cramm, H. A., Dobson, K. S., … Asmundson, G. J. G. (2018b). Mental disorder symptoms among public safety personnel in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743717723825
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carleton, N. R., Afifi, T. O., Turner, S., Taillieu, T., LeBouthillier, D. M., Duranceau, S., Sareen, J., Ricciardelli, R., MacPhee, R. S., Groll, D., Hozempa, K., Brunet, A., Weekes, J. R., Griffiths, C. T., Abrams, K. J., Jones, N. A., Beshai, S., Cramm, H. A., Dobson, K. S., … Asmundson, G. J. G. (2018c). Suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts among public safety personnel in Canada. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 59(3), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000136
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmassi, C., Foghi, C., Dell’Oste, V., Cordone, A., Bertelloni, C. A., Bui, E., & Dell’Osso, L. (2020). PTSD symptoms in healthcare workers facing the three coronavirus outbreaks: What can we expect after the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatry Research, 292, 113312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113312
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmassi, C., Malacarne, P., Dell’Oste, V., Bertelloni, C. A., Cordone, A., Foghi, C., & Dell’Osso, L. (2021). Post-traumatic stress disorder, burnout and their impact on global functioning in Italian emergency healthcare workers. Minerva Anestesiologica, 87(5), 556–566. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0375-9393.20.14853-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatzea, V. E., Sifaki-Pistolla, D., Vlachaki, S. A., Melidoniotis, E., & Pistolla, G. (2018). PTSD, burnout and well-being among rescue workers: Seeking to understand the impact of the European refugee crisis on rescuers. Psychiatry Research, 262, 446–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng, P., Xu, L. Z., Zheng, W. H., Ng, R. M. K., Zhang, L., Li, L. J., & Li, W. H. (2020). Psychometric property study of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) in Chinese healthcare workers during the outbreak of corona virus disease 2019. Journal of Affective Disorders, 277, 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chilcoat, H., & Menard, C. (2004). Trauma and substance abuse: Causes, consequences, and treatment of comorbid disorders. In Trauma and substance abuse: Causes, consequences, and treatment of comorbid disorders. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10460-000
   Google Scholar
• Chopko, B. A., Palmieri, P. A., & Adams, R. E. (2013). Associations between police stress and alcohol use: implications for practice. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 18(5), 482–497. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2012.719340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, S., & Long, A. (2003). Working with the psychological effects of trauma: Consequences for mental health-care workers - A literature review. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 10(4), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2850.2003.00620.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’ettorre, G., Pellicani, V., & Ceccarelli, G. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in healthcare workers: A ten-year systematic review. Acta Biomedica, 91(12-S), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i12-S.9459
   Google Scholar
• di Tella, M., Romeo, A., Benfante, A., & Castelli, L. (2020). Mental health of healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 26(6), 1583–1587. https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.13444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enders, C. K. (2017). Multiple imputation as a flexible tool for missing data handling in clinical research. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 4–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garke, M., Isacsson, N. H., Sörman, K., Bjureberg, J., Hellner, C., Gratz, K. L., Berghoff, C. R., Sinha, R., Tull, M. T., & Jayaram-Lindström, N. (2021). Emotion dysregulation across levels of substance use. Psychiatry Research, 296, 113662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113662
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodgame Huffman, L., Oshri, A., Thompson, J., & Mackillop, J. (2022). Latent typologies of psychiatric symptom comorbidity with substance use: Associations with adverse childhood experiences. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 83(2), 185–194. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2022.83.185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gros, D. F., Price, M., Magruder, K. M., & Frueh, B. C. (2012). Symptom overlap in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression. Psychiatry Research, 196(2-3), 267–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.10.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J., & Feldman Barrett, L. (2011). Emotion generation and emotion regulation: One or two depends on your point of view. Emotion Review, 3(1), 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910380974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, H. (2020). The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers’ mental health. Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants, 33(7), 45–48. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.JAA.0000669772.78848.8c
   Google Scholar
• Harris, P. A., Taylor, R., Thielke, R., Payne, J., Gonzalez, N., & Conde, J. G. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 42(2), 377–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2008.08.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jo, I., Lee, S., Sung, G., Kim, M., Lee, S., Park, J., & Lee, K. (2018). Relationship between burnout and PTSD symptoms in firefighters: The moderating effects of a sense of calling to firefighting. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 91(1), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-017-1263-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsavouni, F., Bebetsos, E., Malliou, P., & Beneka, A. (2016). The relationship between burnout, PTSD symptoms and injuries in firefighters. Occupational Medicine, 66(1), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqv144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khantzian, E. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4(5), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229709030550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, P., Kuang, H., & Tan, H. (2021). The occurrence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), job burnout and its influencing factors among ICU nurses. American Journal of Translational Research, 13(7), 8302–8308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mealer, M., Burnham, E. L., Goode, C. J., Rothbaum, B., & Moss, M. (2009). The prevalence and impact of post traumatic stress disorder and burnout syndrome in nurses. Depression and Anxiety, 26(12), 1118–1126. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta, S., Yarnell, C., Shah, S., Dodek, P., Parsons-Leigh, J., Maunder, R., Kayitesi, J., Eta-Ndu, C., Priestap, F., LeBlanc, D., Chen, J., & Honarmand, K. (2022). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on intensive care unit workers: A nationwide survey. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal Canadien d'anesthésie, 69(4), 472–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12630-021-02175-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merrick, M. T., Ports, K. A., Ford, D. C., Afifi, T. O., Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2017). Unpacking the impact of adverse childhood experiences on adult mental health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.03.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mongeau-Pérusse, V., Rizkallah, E., Bruneau, J., Chênevert, D., Menvielle, L., & Jutras-Aswad, D. (2021). Changes in alcohol habits among workers during the confinement of COVID-19: Results of a Canadian cross-sectional survey. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment, 15. https://doi.org/10.1177/11782218211033298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison, K., Su, S., Keck, M., & Beidel, D. C. (2021). Psychometric properties of the PCL-5 in a sample of first responders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 77, 102339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus User’s Guide (Eight Edition). Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Myran, D. T., Cantor, N., Rhodes, E., Pugliese, M., Hensel, J., Taljaard, M., Talarico, R., Garg, A. X., McArthur, E., Liu, C. W., Jeyakumar, N., Simon, C., McFadden, T., Gerin-Lajoie, C., Sood, M. M., & Tanuseputro, P. (2022). Physician health care visits for mental health and substance use during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada. JAMA Network Open, 5(1), e2143160–e2143160. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.43160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman, S. B., Stein, M. B., & Davidson, J. R. (2007). Profiling posttraumatic functional impairment. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 195(1), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000252135.25114.02
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, H., Holshausen, K., Oshri, A., Andrews, K., Penta, S., Raymond, H., McKinnon, M., Brasch, J., MacKillop, J., & Amlung, M. (2021). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology and substance use in an outpatient concurrent disorders sample. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 66(9), 788–797. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437211011851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, H., O’Connor, C., Andrews, K., Amlung, M., Lanius, R., & McKinnon, M. C. (2022). Dissociative symptomatology mediates the relation between posttraumatic stress disorder severity and alcohol-related problems. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 46(2), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.14764
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pestana, D. V. S., Raglione, D., Junior, L. D., Liberatti, C. S. P., Braga, E. C., Ezequiel, V. A. L., Alves, A. S., Mauro, J. G., Dias, J. O. A., Moreira, P. T. F., Madureira, B. D. B., Paiva, L. P., de Lucena, B. M. N., Junior, J. M. S., & Malbouisson, L. M. S. (2022). Stress and substance abuse among workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in an intensive care unit: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One, 17(2), e0263892. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F. (2011). Prevalence and Axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(3), 456–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Restauri, N., & Sheridan, A. D. (2020). Burnout and posttraumatic stress disorder in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic: Intersection, impact, and interventions. Journal of the American College of Radiology, 17(7), 921–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacr.2020.05.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robles, R., Rodríguez, E., Vega-Ramírez, H., Álvarez-Icaza, D., Madrigal, E., Durand, S., Morales-Chainé, S., Astudillo, C., Real-Ramírez, J., Medina-Mora, M. E., Becerra, C., Escamilla, R., Alcocer-Castillejos, N., Ascencio, L., Díaz, D., González, H., Barrón-Velázquez, E., Fresán, A., Rodríguez-Bores, L., … Reyes-Terán, G. (2021). Mental health problems among healthcare workers involved with the COVID-19 outbreak. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 43(5), 494–503. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1346
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saragih, I. D., Tonapa, S. I., Saragih, I. S., Advani, S., Batubara, S. O., Suarilah, I., & Lin, C. J. (2021). Global prevalence of mental health problems among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 121, 104002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.104002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, J., Aasland, O., Babor, T., De La Fuente, J., & Grant, M. (1993). Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption-II. Addiction, 88(791), 791–804. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02093.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schreiber, J. B., Stage, F. K., King, J., Nora, A., & Barlow, E. A. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, J. S., Gaher, R. M., Jacobs, G. A., Meyer, D., & Johnson-Jimenez, E. (2005). Associations between alcohol use and PTSD symptoms among American red cross disaster relief workers responding to the 9/11/2001 attacks. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 31(2), 285–304. https://doi.org/10.1081/ADA-47937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, X., Fu, W., Liu, X., Luo, Z., Wang, R., Zhou, N., Yan, S., & Lv, C. (2020). Mental health status of medical staff in emergency departments during the Coronavirus disease 2019 epidemic in China. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 88, 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiegel, D. (2011). Divided consciousness: Dissociation in DSM-5. Depression and Anxiety, 29(8), 667–670. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21984
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomaszek, K., & Muchacka-Cymerman, A. (2022). Student burnout and PTSD symptoms: The role of existential anxiety and academic fears on students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Depression Research and Treatment, 2022, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6979310
   Google Scholar
• Turna, J., Patterson, B., Goldman Bergmann, C., Lamberti, N., Rahat, M., Dwyer, H., Francisco, A. P., Vismara, M., Dell’Osso, B., Sideris, B., & Van Ameringen, M. (2022). Mental health during the first wave of COVID-19 in Canada, the USA, Brazil and Italy. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 26(2), 148–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/13651501.2021.1956544
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Lavender, J., & Gratz, K. L. (2013). Role of emotion dysregulation in the relationship between childhood abuse and probable PTSD in a sample of substance abusers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(11), 944–954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Viana, A. G., Anestis, M. D., & Gratz, K. L. (2012). Impulsive behaviors as an emotion regulation strategy: Examining associations between PTSD, emotion dysregulation, and impulsive behaviors among substance dependent inpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(3), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westphal, M., Olfson, M., Gameroff, M. J., Wickramaratne, P., Pilowsky, D. J., Neugebauer, R., Lantigua, R., Shea, S., & Neria, Y. (2011). Functional impairment in adults with past posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from primary care. Depression and Anxiety, 28(8), 686–695. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf, E. J., Miller, M. W., Reardon, A. F., Ryabchenko, K. A., Castillo, D., & Freund, R. (2012). A latent class analysis of dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for a dissociative subtype. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(7), 698–705. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1574
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, K. P., Kolcz, D. L., O’Sullivan, D. M., Ferrand, J., Fried, J., & Robinson, K. (2021). Health care workers’ mental health and quality of life during COVID-19: Results from a mid-pandemic, national survey. Psychiatric Services, 72(2), 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202000424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar