References

• Aakvaag, H. F., Thoresen, S., Strøm, I. F., Myhre, M., & Hjemdal, O. K. (2019). Shame predicts revictimization in victims of childhood violence: A prospective study of a general Norwegian population sample. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aakvaag, H. F., Thoresen, S., Wentzel-Larsen, T., Dyb, G., Røysamb, E., & Olff, M. (2016). Broken and guilty since it happened: A population study of trauma-related shame and guilt after violence and sexual abuse. Journal of Affective Disorders, 204, 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.06.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allard, C. B., Norman, S. B., Thorp, S. R., Browne, K. C., & Stein, M. B. (2018). Mid-treatment reduction in trauma-related guilt predicts PTSD and functioning following cognitive trauma therapy for survivors of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(23), 3610–3629. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516636068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Pub. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association. (2017). Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of PTSD.
   Google Scholar
• Aspy, D. J., & Proeve, M. (2017). Mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation: Effects on connectedness to humanity and to the natural world. Psychological Reports, 120(1), 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294116685867
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Au, T. M., Sauer-Zavala, S., King, M. W., Petrocchi, N., Barlow, D. H., & Litz, B. T. (2017). Compassion-based therapy for trauma-related shame and posttraumatic stress: Initial evaluation using a multiple baseline design. Behavior Therapy, 48(2), 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badour, C. L., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2017). Associations between specific negative emotions and DSM-5 PTSD among a national sample of interpersonal trauma survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(11), 1620–1641. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515589930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bech, P., Olsen, L. R., Kjoller, M., & Rasmussen, N. K. (2003). Measuring well-being rather than the absence of distress symptoms: A comparison of the SF-36 mental health subscale and the WHO-five well-being scale. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12(2), 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). BDI-II: Beck depression inventory: Manual (2nd ed.). Psychological Corporation; Harcourt Brace.
   Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodhi, B. (2010). The noble eightfold path: The way to the end of suffering. Buddhist Publication Society. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564813
   Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M. (2015). The “one size fits all” approach to trauma treatment: Should we be satisfied? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), Article 27344. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.27344
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, C. J., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2015). Reconstructing and deconstructing the self: Cognitive mechanisms in meditation practice. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(9), 515–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalgleish, T., Black, M., Johnston, D., & Bevan, A. (2020). Transdiagnostic approaches to mental health problems: Current status and future directions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(3), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000482
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeCou, C. R., Lynch, S. M., Weber, S., Richner, D., Mozafari, A., Huggins, H., & Perschon, B. (2023). On the association between trauma-related shame and symptoms of psychopathology: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1193–1201. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211053617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derogatis, L. R. (1993). Brief symptom inventory: BSI; administration, scoring, and procedures manual. Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A. (1999). Posttraumatische belastungsstörung. Hogrefe.
   Google Scholar
• Finch, H. (2005). Comparison of the performance of nonparametric and parametric MANOVA test statistics when assumptions are violated. Methodology, 1(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-1881.1.1.27
   Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Williams, J. B., Karg, R. S., & Spitzer, R. L. (2015). Structured clinical interview for DSM-5 disorders, clinician version (SCID-5-CV). American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2007). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99(1), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonzo, G. A., Federchenco, V., & Lara, A. (2020). Predicting and managing treatment non-response in posttraumatic stress disorder. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 7(2), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-020-00203-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy. The CBT distinctive features series. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gu, X., Luo, W., Zhao, X., Chen, Y., Zheng, Y., Zhou, J., Zeng, X., Yan, L., Chen, Y., Zhang, X., Lv, J., Lang, Y., Wang, Z., Gao, C., Jiang, Y., & Li, R. (2022). The effects of loving-kindness and compassion meditation on life satisfaction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 14(3), 1081–1101. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S., & Truax, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearney, D. J., Malte, C. A., McManus, C., Martinez, M. E., Felleman, B., & Simpson, T. L. (2013). Loving-kindness meditation for posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(4), 426–434. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearney, D. J., Malte, C. A., Storms, M., & Simpson, T. L. (2021). Loving-kindness meditation vs cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder among veterans: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open, 4(4), Article e216604. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.6604
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearney, D. J., McManus, C., Malte, C. A., Martinez, M. E., Felleman, B., & Simpson, T. L. (2014). Loving-kindness meditation and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Medical Care, 52(Suppl 5), S32–S38. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000221
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Bromet, E. J., Cardoso, G., Degenhardt, L., de Girolamo, G., Dinolova, R. V., Ferry, F., Florescu, S., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Huang, Y., Karam, E. G., Kawakami, N., Lee, S., Lepine, J.-P., Levinson, D., ... Koenen, K. C. (2017). Trauma and PTSD in the WHO world mental health surveys. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(Sup5), 1353383. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Abueg, F. R., Manke, F. P., Brennan, J. M., & Stahura, C. (1996). Development and validation of the trauma-related guilt inventory (TRGI). Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 428–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.428
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubany, E. S., & Ralston, T. C. (1998). Cognitive therapy for trauma-related guilt. In V. M. Follette, & J. I. Ruzek (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (2nd ed., pp. 124–161). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Lang, A. J., Malaktaris, A. L., Casmar, P., Baca, S. A., Golshan, S., Harrison, T., & Negi, L. (2019). Compassion meditation for posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans: A randomized proof of concept study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(2), 299–309. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen, S. E., Bellmore, A., Gobin, R. L., Holens, P., Lawrence, K. A., & Pacella-LaBarbara, M. L. (2019). An initial review of residual symptoms after empirically supported trauma-focused cognitive behavioral psychological treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 63, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen, S. E., Fleming, C. J., & Resick, P. A. (2019). Residual symptoms following empirically supported treatment for PTSD. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(2), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, D. A., Scragg, P., & Turner, S. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74(4), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711201161109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Gibson, S., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Dropout from psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), Article 1709709. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1709709
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, S. B. (2008). Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 364–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106291059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller-Engelmann, M., Schnyder, U., Dittmann, C., Priebe, K., Bohus, M., Thome, J., Fydrich, T., Pfaltz, M. C., & Steil, R. (2020). Psychometric properties and factor structure of the German version of the clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5. Assessment, 27(6), 1128–1138. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191118774840
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller-Engelmann, M., Schreiber, C., Kümmerle, S., Heidenreich, T., Stangier, U., & Steil, R. (2019). A trauma-adapted mindfulness and loving-kindness intervention for patients with PTSD after interpersonal violence: A multiple-baseline study. Mindfulness, 10(6), 1105–1123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1068-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman, S. B., Capone, C., Panza, K. E., Haller, M., Davis, B. C., Schnurr, P. P., Shea, M. T., Browne, K., Norman, G. J., & Lang, A. J. (2022). A clinical trial comparing trauma-informed guilt reduction therapy (TrIGR), a brief intervention for trauma-related guilt, to supportive care therapy. Depression and Anxiety, 39(4), 262–273. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Øktedalen, T., Hagtvet, K. A., Hoffart, A., Langkaas, T. F., & Smucker, M. (2014). The trauma-related shame inventory: Measuring trauma-related shame among patients with PTSD. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(4), 600–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9422-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Power, M. J., & Fyvie, C. (2013). The role of emotion in PTSD: Two preliminary studies. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 41(2), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465812000148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugh, L. R., Taylor, P. J., & Berry, K. (2015). The role of guilt in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 182, 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resick, P. A., Galovski, T. E., Uhlmansiek, M. O., Scher, C. D., Clum, G. A., & Young-Xu, Y. (2008). A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Chard, K. M. (2016). Cognitive processing therapy for PTSD: A comprehensive manual. Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Salzberg, S. (2002). Lovingkindness: The revolutionary art of happiness. Shambhala Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Schumm, J. A., Dickstein, B. D., Walter, K. H., Owens, G. P., & Chard, K. M. (2015). Changes in posttraumatic cognitions predict changes in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during cognitive processing therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(6), 1161–1166. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahar, B., Szepsenwol, O., Zilcha-Mano, S., Haim, N., Zamir, O., Levi-Yeshuvi, S., & Levit-Binnun, N. (2015). A wait-list randomized controlled trial of loving-kindness meditation programme for self-criticism. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 22(4), 346–356. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, C., Ren, Z., Zhao, C., Zhang, T., & Chan, SH-W. (2021). Shame, guilt, and posttraumatic stress symptoms: A three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 82, Article 102443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102443
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swift, J. K., & Greenberg, R. P. (2014). A treatment by disorder meta-analysis of dropout from psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 24(3), 193–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037512
   Google Scholar
• Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology., 58(1), 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Totzeck, C., Teismann, T., Hofmann, S. G., von Brachel, R., Pflug, V., Wannemüller, A., & Margraf, J. (2020). Loving-kindness meditation promotes mental health in university students. Mindfulness, 11(7), 1623–1631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01375-w
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran, U. S., & Gregor, B. (2016). The relative efficacy of bona fide psychotherapies for post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytical evaluation of randomized controlled trials. BMC Psychiatry, 16(1), Article 266. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0979-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang, Y [Yabing], Chung, M. C., Wang, N., Yu, X., & Kenardy, J. (2021). Social support and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 85, Article 101998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013). The life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). http://www.ptsd.va.gov/.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Bovin, M. J., Lee, D. J., Sloan, D. M., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Keane, T. M., & Marx, B. P. (2018). The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM–5 (CAPS-5): development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. Psychological Assessment, 30(3), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2019). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). https://icd.who.int/
   Google Scholar