The role of dendritic cells in COVID-19 infection

References

• Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, et al. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):470–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(3):105924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020;323(11):1061–1069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masre SF, Jufri NF, Ibrahim FW, et al. Classical and alternative receptors for SARS-CoV-2 therapeutic strategy. Rev Med Virol. 2021;31(5):1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vellingiri B, Jayaramayya K, Iyer M, et al. COVID-19: A promising cure for the global panic. Sci Total Environ. 2020;725:138277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Brussel I, Berneman ZN, Cools N. Optimizing dendritic cell-based immunotherapy: tackling the complexity of different arms of the immune system. Mediators Inflamm. 2012;2012:690643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao C, Zhao W. NLRP3 inflammasome-A key player in antiviral responses. Front Immunol. 2020;11:211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo K, Gordy JT, Zavala F, et al. A chemokine-fusion vaccine targeting immature dendritic cells elicits elevated antibody responses to malaria sporozoites in infant macaques. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):1220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(4):420–422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arya R, Kumari S, Pandey B, et al. Structural insights into SARS-CoV-2 proteins. J Mol Biol. 2021;433(2):166725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brian DA, Baric RS. Coronavirus genome structure and replication. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2005;287:1–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weissenhorn W, Dessen A, Calder LJ, et al. Structural basis for membrane fusion by enveloped viruses. Mol Membr Biol. 1999;16(1):3–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li F. Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins. Annu Rev Virol. 2016;3(1):237–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang T, Bidon M, Jaimes JA, et al. Coronavirus membrane fusion mechanism offers a potential target for antiviral development. Antiviral Res. 2020;178:104792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 2020;323(13):1239–1242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peebles RS, Graham BS. Viruses, dendritic cells and the lung. Respir Res. 2001;2(4):245–249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collin M, Bigley V. Human dendritic cell subsets: an update. Immunology. 2018;154(1):3–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsson M, Beignon AS, Bhardwaj N. DC-virus interplay: a double edged sword. Semin Immunol. 2004;16(3):147–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenbarth SC. Dendritic cell subsets in T cell programming: location dictates function. Nat Rev Immunol. 2019;19(2):89–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• See P, Dutertre CA, Chen J, et al. Mapping the human DC lineage through the integration of high-dimensional techniques. Science. 2017;356(6342):eaag3009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DA 3rd, Dutertre CA, Ginhoux F, et al. Genetic models of human and mouse dendritic cell development and function. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(2):101–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilliams M, Dutertre CA, Scott CL, et al. Unsupervised high-dimensional analysis aligns dendritic cells across tissues and species. Immunity. 2016;45(3):669–684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canton J, Blees H, Henry CM, et al. The receptor DNGR-1 signals for phagosomal rupture to promote cross-presentation of dead-cell-associated antigens. Nat Immunol. 2021;22(2):140–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jongbloed SL, Kassianos AJ, McDonald KJ, et al. Human CD141+ (BDCA-3)+ dendritic cells (DCs) represent a unique myeloid DC subset that cross-presents necrotic cell antigens. J Exp Med. 2010;207(6):1247–1260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nizzoli G, Krietsch J, Weick A, et al. Human CD1c+ dendritic cells secrete high levels of IL-12 and potently prime cytotoxic T-cell responses. Blood. 2013;122(6):932–942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilliet M, Cao W, Liu YJ. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells: sensing nucleic acids in viral infection and autoimmune diseases. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8(8):594–606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reizis B, Bunin A, Ghosh HS, et al. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells: recent progress and open questions. Annu Rev Immunol. 2011;29:163–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swiecki M, Colonna M. The multifaceted biology of plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15(8):471–485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randolph GJ, Inaba K, Robbiani DF, et al. Differentiation of phagocytic monocytes into lymph node dendritic cells in vivo. Immunity. 1999;11(6):753–761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leon B, Lopez-Bravo M, Ardavin C. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells formed at the infection site control the induction of protective T helper 1 responses against Leishmania. Immunity. 2007;26(4):519–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hato T, Dagher PC. How the innate immune system senses trouble and causes trouble. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10(8):1459–1469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishii KJ, Koyama S, Nakagawa A, et al. Host innate immune receptors and beyond: making sense of microbial infections. Cell Host Microbe. 2008;3(6):352–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tartey S, Takeuchi O. Pathogen recognition and toll-like receptor targeted therapeutics in innate immune cells. Int Rev Immunol. 2017;36(2):57–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers NC, Slack EC, Edwards AD, et al. Syk-dependent cytokine induction by dectin-1 reveals a novel pattern recognition pathway for C type lectins. Immunity. 2005;22(4):507–517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dosch SF, Mahajan SD, Collins AR. SARS coronavirus spike protein-induced innate immune response occurs via activation of the NF-kappaB pathway in human monocyte macrophages in vitro. Virus Res. 2009;142(1-2):19–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Totura AL, Whitmore A, Agnihothram S, et al. Toll-Like receptor 3 signaling via TRIF contributes to a protective innate immune response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. mBio. 2015;6(3):e00638-15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koop A, Lepenies I, Braum O, et al. Novel splice variants of human IKKepsilon negatively regulate IKKepsilon-induced IRF3 and NF-kB activation. Eur J Immunol. 2011;41(1):224–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reizis B. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells: development, regulation, and function. Immunity. 2019;50(1):37–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa BA, Ahmed M, Singh DK, et al. IFN signaling and neutrophil degranulation transcriptional signatures are induced during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Commun Biol. 2021;4(1):290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider WM, Chevillotte MD, Rice CM. Interferon-stimulated genes: a complex web of host defenses. Annu Rev Immunol. 2014;32:513–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villadangos JA, Schnorrer P. Intrinsic and cooperative antigen-presenting functions of dendritic-cell subsets in vivo. Nat Rev Immunol. 2007;7(7):543–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villadangos JA, Heath WR. Life cycle, migration and antigen presenting functions of spleen and lymph node dendritic cells: limitations of the langerhans cells paradigm. Semin Immunol. 2005;17(4):262–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Gomez A, Vitallé J, Gasca-Capote C, et al. Dendritic cell deficiencies persist seven months after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cell Mol Immunol. 2021;18(9):2128–2139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onodi F, Bonnet-Madin L, Meertens L, et al. SARS-CoV-2 induces human plasmacytoid predendritic cell diversification via UNC93B and IRAK4. J Exp Med. 2021;218(4):e20201387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streicher F, Jouvenet N. Stimulation of innate immunity by host and viral RNAs. Trends Immunol. 2019;40(12):1134–1148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoggins JW. Interferon-stimulated genes: what Do they All Do? Annu Rev Virol. 2019;6(1):567–584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crouse J, Kalinke U, Oxenius A. Regulation of antiviral T cell responses by type I interferons. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15(4):231–242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makris S, Paulsen M, Johansson C. Type I interferons as regulators of lung inflammation. Front Immunol. 2017;8:259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanco-Melo D, Nilsson-Payant BE, Liu WC, et al. Imbalanced host response to SARS-CoV-2 drives development of COVID-19. Cell. 2020;181(5):1036–1045 e9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu H, Chan JF, Wang Y, et al. Comparative replication and immune activation profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in human lungs: an ex vivo study with implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(6):1400–1409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadjadj J, Yatim N, Barnabei L, et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients. Science. 2020;369(6504):718–724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):221–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Q, Bastard P; COVID Human Genetic Effort, Cobat A, et al. Human genetic and immunological determinants of critical COVID-19 pneumonia. Nature. 2022;603(7902):587–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiegel M, Pichlmair A, Martínez-Sobrido L, et al. Inhibition of beta interferon induction by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus suggests a two-step model for activation of interferon regulatory factor 3. J Virol. 2005;79(4):2079–2086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung CY, Poon LL, Ng IH, et al. Cytokine responses in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-infected macrophages in vitro: possible relevance to pathogenesis. J Virol. 2005;79(12):7819–7826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler T, Matikainen S, Rönkkö E, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus fails to activate cytokine-mediated innate immune responses in cultured human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. J Virol. 2005;79(21):13800–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalod M, Hamilton T, Salomon R, et al. Dendritic cell responses to early murine cytomegalovirus infection: subset functional specialization and differential regulation by interferon alpha/beta. J Exp Med. 2003;197(7):885–898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salazar-Mather TP, Orange JS, Biron CA. Early murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection induces liver natural killer (NK) cell inflammation and protection through macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha (MIP-1alpha)-dependent pathways. J Exp Med. 1998;187(1):1–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Vito C, Calcaterra F, Coianiz N, et al. Natural killer cells in SARS-CoV-2 infection: pathophysiology and therapeutic implications. Front Immunol. 2022;13:888248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaplin DD. Overview of the immune response. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(2 Suppl 2):S3–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinman RM, Hemmi H. Dendritic cells: translating innate to adaptive immunity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;311:17–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain A, Pasare C. Innate control of adaptive immunity: beyond the three-signal paradigm. J Immunol. 2017;198(10):3791–3800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu C, Peng P, Loschko J, et al. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells cross-prime naive CD8 T cells by transferring antigen to conventional dendritic cells through exosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(38):23730–23741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law HK, Cheung CY, Ng HY, et al. Chemokine up-regulation in SARS-coronavirus-infected, monocyte-derived human dendritic cells. Blood. 2005;106(7):2366–2374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neefjes JJ, Ploegh HL. Inhibition of endosomal proteolytic activity by leupeptin blocks surface expression of MHC class II molecules and their conversion to SDS resistance alpha beta heterodimers in endosomes. EMBO J. 1992;11(2):411–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiPiazza A, Nogales A, Poulton N, et al. Pandemic 2009 H1N1 influenza Venus reporter virus reveals broad diversity of MHC class II-positive antigen-bearing cells following infection in vivo. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):10857.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Galluzzi L, Buqué A, Kepp O, et al. Immunogenic cell death in cancer and infectious disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2017;17(2):97–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ni L, Ye F, Cheng ML, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2-specific humoral and cellular immunity in COVID-19 convalescent individuals. Immunity. 2020;52(6):971–977 e3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jego G, Palucka AK, Blanck JP, et al. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells induce plasma cell differentiation through type I interferon and interleukin 6. Immunity. 2003;19(2):225–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jing Y, Luo L, Chen Y, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection causes immunodeficiency in recovered patients by downregulating CD19 expression in B cells via enhancing B-cell metabolism. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021;6(1):345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai G, Du M, Bossé Y, et al. SARS-CoV-2 impairs dendritic cells and regulates DC-SIGN gene expression in tissues. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(17):9228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laing AG, Lorenc A, Del Molino Del Barrio I, et al. A dynamic COVID-19 immune signature includes associations with poor prognosis. Nat Med. 2020;26(10):1623–1635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bray M, Geisbert TW. Ebola virus: the role of macrophages and dendritic cells in the pathogenesis of ebola hemorrhagic fever. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2005;37(8):1560–1566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu L, KewalRamani VN. Dendritic-cell interactions with HIV: infection and viral dissemination. Nat Rev Immunol. 2006;6(11):859–868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lan J, Ge J, Yu J, et al. Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain bound to the ACE2 receptor. Nature. 2020;581(7807):215–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang T, Yang J, Deng H, et al. Depletion and dysfunction of dendritic cells: understanding SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front Immunol. 2022;13:843342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao C, Zeng J, Jia N, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Interacts with Multiple Innate Immune Receptors. bioRxiv, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Brufsky A, Lotze MT. DC/L-SIGNs of hope in the COVID-19 pandemic. J Med Virol. 2020;92(9):1396–1398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soilleux EJ, Morris LS, Leslie G, et al. Constitutive and induced expression of DC-SIGN on dendritic cell and macrophage subpopulations in situ and in vitro. J Leukoc Biol. 2002;71(3):445–457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang K, Chen W, Zhang Z, et al. CD147-spike protein is a novel route for SARS-CoV-2 infection to host cells. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5(1):283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodhead VE, Binks MH, Chain BM, et al. From sentinel to messenger: an extended phenotypic analysis of the monocyte to dendritic cell transition. Immunology. 1998;94(4):552–559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou R, To KK, Wong YC, et al. Acute SARS-CoV-2 infection impairs dendritic cell and T cell responses. Immunity. 2020;53(4):864–877 e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saichi M, Ladjemi MZ, Korniotis S, et al. Single-cell RNA sequencing of blood antigen-presenting cells in severe COVID-19 reveals multi-process defects in antiviral immunity. Nat Cell Biol. 2021;23(5):538–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silvin A, Chapuis N, Dunsmore G, et al. Elevated calprotectin and abnormal myeloid cell subsets discriminate severe from mild COVID-19. Cell. 2020;182(6):1401–1418. e18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi W, Liu X, Cao Q, et al. High-dimensional single-cell analysis reveals the immune characteristics of COVID-19. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2021;320(1):L84–L98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng CT, Perrone LA, Zhu H, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the innate immune responses: modulation of effector cell function without productive infection. J Immunol. 2005;174(12):7977–7985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang D, Chu H, Hou Y, et al. Attenuated interferon and proinflammatory response in SARS-CoV-2-infected human dendritic cells Is associated With viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation. J Infect Dis. 2020;222(5):734–745.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldarale F, Giacomelli M, Garrafa E, et al. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells depletion and elevation of IFN-gamma dependent chemokines CXCL9 and CXCL10 in children With multisystem inflammatory syndrome. Front Immunol. 2021;12:654587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilk AJ, Rustagi A, Zhao NQ, et al. A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(7):1070–1076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poehlmann H, Schefold JC, Zuckermann-Becker H, et al. Phenotype changes and impaired function of dendritic cell subsets in patients with sepsis: a prospective observational analysis. Crit Care. 2009;13(4):R119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollara G, Kwan A, Newton PJ, et al. Dendritic cells in viral pathogenesis: protective or defective? Int J Exp Pathol. 2005;86(4):187–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borges RC, Hohmann MS, Borghi SM. Dendritic cells in COVID-19 immunopathogenesis: insights for a possible role in determining disease outcome. Int Rev Immunol. 2021;40(1-2):108–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallis P, Michalopoulos E, Chatzistamatiou T, et al. Mesenchymal stromal cells as potential immunomodulatory players in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection. World J Stem Cells. 2020;12(8):731–751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bermejo-Jambrina M, Eder J, Kaptein TM, et al. Infection and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 depend on heparan sulfate proteoglycans. EMBO J. 2021;40(20):e106765.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saadeldin MK, Abdel-Aziz AK, Abdellatif A. Dendritic cell vaccine immunotherapy; the beginning of the end of cancer and COVID-19. A hypothesis. Med Hypotheses. 2021;146:110365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar