Leaderless foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O did not cause clinical disease and failed to establish a persistent infection in cattle

References

• Grubman MJ, Baxt B. Foot-and-mouth disease. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17:465–493. doi:10.1128/CMR.17.2.465-493.2004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett PV, Geale DW, Clarke G, et al. A review of OIE country status recovery using vaccinate-to-live versus vaccinate-to-die foot-and-mouth disease response policies I: benefits of higher potency vaccines and associated NSP DIVA test systems in post-outbreak surveillance. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2015;62:367–387. doi:10.1111/tbed.12166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson D, Muriel P, Russell D, et al. Economic costs of the foot and mouth disease outbreak in the United Kingdom in 2001. Rev Sci Tech. 2002;21:675–687. doi:10.20506/rst.21.3.1353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenfeldt C, Eschbaumer M, Rekant SI, et al. The foot-and-mouth disease carrier state divergence in cattle. J Virol. 2016;90:6344–6364. doi:10.1128/JVI.00388-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutmoller P, McVicar JW, Cottral GE. The epizootiological importance of foot-and-mouth disease carriers. I. Experimentally produced foot-and-mouth disease carriers in susceptible and immune cattle. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch. 1968;23:227–235. doi:10.1007/BF01241895
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ilott MC, Salt JS, Gaskell RM, et al. Dexamethasone inhibits virus production and the secretory IgA response in oesophageal–pharyngeal fluid in cattle persistently infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus. Epidemiol Infect. 1997;118:181–187. doi:10.1017/S0950268896007376
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox SJ, Voyce C, Parida S, et al. Protection against direct-contact challenge following emergency FMD vaccination of cattle and the effect on virus excretion from the oropharynx. Vaccine. 2005;23:1106–1113. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.08.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenfeldt C, Arzt J. The carrier conundrum: a review of recent advances and persistent gaps regarding the carrier state of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Pathogens. 2020;9. doi:10.3390/pathogens9030167
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burrows R. Studies on the carrier state of cattle exposed to foot-and-mouth disease virus. J Hyg (Lond. 1966;64:81–90. doi:10.1017/S0022172400040365
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pacheco JM, Smoliga GR, O'Donnell V, et al. Persistent foot-and-mouth disease virus infection in the nasopharynx of cattle: tissue-specific distribution and local cytokine expression. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0125698.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arzt J, Belsham GJ, Lohse L, et al. Transmission of foot-and-mouth disease from persistently infected carrier cattle to naive cattle via transfer of oropharyngeal fluid. mSphere. 2018;3. doi:10.1128/mSphere.00365-18
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jolles A, Gorsich E, Gubbins S, et al. Endemic persistence of a highly contagious pathogen: foot-and-mouth disease in its wildlife host. Science. 2021;374:104–109. doi:10.1126/science.abd2475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawe PS, Sorensen K, Ferris NP, et al. Experimental transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus from carrier African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) to cattle in Zimbabwe. Vet Rec. 1994;134:211–215. doi:10.1136/vr.134.9.211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao Y, Sun S-Q, Guo H-C. Biological function of foot-and-mouth disease virus non-structural proteins and non-coding elements. Virol J. 2016;13. doi:10.1186/s12985-016-0561-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina M, Domingo E, Brangwyn JK, et al. The two species of the foot-and-mouth disease virus leader protein, expressed individually, exhibit the same activities. Virology. 1993;194:355–359. doi:10.1006/viro.1993.1267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belsham GJ. Influence of the Leader protein coding region of foot-and-mouth disease virus on virus replication. J Gen Virol. 2013;94:1486–1495. doi:10.1099/vir.0.052126-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strebel K, Beck E. A second protease of foot-and-mouth disease virus. J Virol. 1986;58:893–899. doi:10.1128/jvi.58.3.893-899.1986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devaney MA, Vakharia VN, Lloyd RE, et al. Leader protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus is required for cleavage of the p220 component of the cap-binding protein complex. J Virol. 1988;62:4407–4409. doi:10.1128/jvi.62.11.4407-4409.1988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Fang L, Li P, et al. The leader proteinase of foot-and-mouth disease virus negatively regulates the type I interferon pathway by acting as a viral deubiquitinase. J Virol. 2011;85:3758–3766. doi:10.1128/JVI.02589-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Fang L, Luo R, et al. Foot-and-mouth disease virus leader proteinase inhibits dsRNA-induced type I interferon transcription by decreasing interferon regulatory factor 3/7 in protein levels. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2010;399:72–78. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.07.044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arzt J, Pacheco JM, Smoliga GR, et al. Foot-and-mouth disease virus virulence in cattle is co-determined by viral replication dynamics and route of infection. Virology. 2014;452–453:12–22. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2014.01.001
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Piccone ME, Rieder E, Mason PW, et al. The foot-and-mouth disease virus leader proteinase gene is not required for viral replication. J Virol. 1995;69:5376–5382. doi:10.1128/jvi.69.9.5376-5382.1995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown CC, Piccone ME, Mason PW, et al. Pathogenesis of wild-type and leaderless foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle. J Virol. 1996;70:5638–5641. doi:10.1128/jvi.70.8.5638-5641.1996
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason PW, Piccone ME, Mckenna TS, et al. Evaluation of a live-attenuated foot-and-mouth disease virus as a vaccine candidate. Virology. 1997;227:96–102. doi:10.1006/viro.1996.8309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uddowla S, Hollister J, Pacheco JM, et al. A safe foot-and-mouth disease vaccine platform with two negative markers for differentiating infected from vaccinated animals. J Virol. 2012;86:11675–11685. doi:10.1128/JVI.01254-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piccone ME, Pacheco JM, Pauszek SJ, et al. The region between the two polyprotein initiation codons of foot-and-mouth disease virus is critical for virulence in cattle. Virology. 2010;396:152–159. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2009.10.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang M, Hill JE, Alexander TW, et al. The nasal viromes of cattle on arrival at western Canadian feedlots and their relationship to development of bovine respiratory disease. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2021;68:2209–2218. doi:10.1111/tbed.13873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon-Loriere E, Holmes EC. Why do RNA viruses recombine? Nat Rev Microbiol. 2011;9:617–626. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath L, van der Walt E, Varsani A, et al. Recombination patterns in aphthoviruses mirror those found in other picornaviruses. J Virol. 2006;80:11827–11832. doi:10.1128/JVI.01100-06
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uddowla S, Pacheco JM, Larson C, et al. Characterization of a chimeric foot-and-mouth disease virus bearing a bovine rhinitis B virus leader proteinase. Virology. 2013;447:172–180. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2013.08.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forth LF, Höper D, Beer M, et al. High-resolution composition analysis of an inactivated polyvalent foot-and-mouth disease vaccine. Pathogens. 2020;9. doi:10.3390/pathogens9010063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellard FM, Drew J, Blakemore WE, et al. Evidence for the role of His-142 of protein 1C in the acid-induced disassembly of foot-and-mouth disease virus capsids. J Gen Virol. 1999;80(Pt 8):1911–1918. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-80-8-1911
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bond SR, Naus CC. RF-Cloning.org: an online tool for the design of restriction-free cloning projects. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012;40:W209–W213. doi:10.1093/nar/gks396
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dill V, Beer M, Hoffmann B. Simple, quick and cost-efficient: a universal RT-PCR and sequencing strategy for genomic characterisation of foot-and-mouth disease viruses. J Virol Methods. 2017;246:58–64. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.04.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchholz UJ, Finke S, Conzelmann KK. Generation of bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) from cDNA: BRSV NS2 is not essential for virus replication in tissue culture, and the human RSV leader region acts as a functional BRSV genome promoter. J Virol. 1999;73:251–259. doi:10.1128/JVI.73.1.251-259.1999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keil GM, Klopfleisch C, Giesow K, et al. Novel vectors for simultaneous high-level dual protein expression in vertebrate and insect cells by recombinant baculoviruses. J Virol Methods. 2009;160:132–137. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.05.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larocco M, Krug PW, Kramer E, et al. A continuous bovine kidney cell line constitutively expressing bovine αvβ6 integrin has increased susceptibility to foot-and-mouth disease virus. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51:1714–1720. doi:10.1128/JCM.03370-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Castro MP. Comportamento do virus aftoso em cultura de células: susceptibilidade da linhagem de células suinas IB-RS-2. Archiv Instit Biológ Sâo Paulo. 1964;31:63–78.
   Google Scholar
• Brehm KE, Ferris NP, Lenk M, et al. Highly sensitive fetal goat tongue cell line for detection and isolation of foot-and-mouth disease virus. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:3156–3160. doi:10.1128/JCM.00510-09
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacheco JM, Stenfeldt C, Rodriguez LL, et al. Infection dynamics of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle following intranasopharyngeal inoculation or contact exposure. J Comp Pathol. 2016;155:314–325. doi:10.1016/j.jcpa.2016.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann B, Depner K, Schirrmeier H, et al. A universal heterologous internal control system for duplex real-time RT-PCR assays used in a detection system for pestiviruses. J Virol Methods. 2006;136:200–209. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2006.05.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callahan JD, Brown F, Osorio FA, et al. Use of a portable real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction assay for rapid detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002;220:1636–1642. doi:10.2460/javma.2002.220.1636
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie Y-L, Lv D-H, Wen X-H, et al. Development of a real-time quantitative RT-PCR assay for detection of bovine rhinitis B virus. Front Vet Sci. 2021;8:680707. doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.680707
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutmoller and Gaggero. (1965). FMD carriers_Probang.
   Google Scholar
• Sutmoller P, Cottral GE. Improved techniques for the detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus in carrier cattle. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch. 1967;21:170–177. doi:10.1007/BF01241441
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayr KB A. The Chloroform resistance test in the isolation and characterization of enteroviruses. Zentral Veter. 1961;8:908–922.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson EB. Probable inference, the law of succession, and statistical inference. J Am Stat Assoc. 1927;22:209–212. doi:10.1080/01621459.1927.10502953
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonbon E, Funes GM, Hammami S, et al. WOAH terrestrial manual 2022: Chapter 3.1.8. Foot and Mouth Disease (Infection with Foot and Mouth Disease Virus) [cited 2024 Mar 22].
   Google Scholar
• Hardham JM, Krug P, Pacheco JM, et al. Novel foot-and-mouth disease vaccine platform: formulations for safe and DIVA-compatible FMD vaccines with improved potency. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:554305. doi:10.3389/fvets.2020.554305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraatz F, Wernike K, Hechinger S, et al. Deletion mutants of Schmallenberg virus are avirulent and protect from virus challenge. J Virol. 2015;89:1825–1837. doi:10.1128/JVI.02729-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holinka-Patterson LG, Fish IH, Bertram MR, et al. Genome of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) contaminating a continuous LFBK-αVβ6 cell line. Microbiol Resour Announc. 2022;11:e0116721. doi:10.1128/mra.01167-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweizer M, Peterhans E. Noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus inhibits double-stranded RNA-induced apoptosis and interferon synthesis. J Virol. 2001;75:4692–4698. doi:10.1128/JVI.75.10.4692-4698.2001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moonen P, Jacobs L, Crienen A, et al. Detection of carriers of foot-and-mouth disease virus among vaccinated cattle. Vet Microbiol. 2004;103:151–160. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2004.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenfeldt C, Heegaard PMH, Stockmarr A, et al. Analysis of the acute phase responses of serum amyloid a, haptoglobin and type 1 interferon in cattle experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O. Vet Res. 2011;42(1):66. See https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3123197/
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Horsington J, Zhang Z. Consistent change in the B-C loop of VP2 observed in foot-and-mouth disease virus from persistently infected cattle: implications for association with persistence. Virus Res. 2007;125:114–118. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2006.12.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malirat V, de Mello PA, Tiraboschi B, et al. Genetic variation of foot-and-mouth disease virus during persistent infection in cattle. Virus Res. 1994;34:31–48. doi:10.1016/0168-1702(94)90117-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juleff N, Windsor M, Reid E, et al. Foot-and-mouth disease virus persists in the light zone of germinal centres. PLoS One. 2008;3:e3434. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickel R, Schummer A, Seiferle E. Lehrbuch der Anatomie der Haustiere. Band III.: Kreislaufsystem, Haut und Hautorgane. 4th edn. Berlin/Hamburg: Paul Parey Vlg; 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Stenfeldt C, Hartwig EJ, Smoliga GR, et al. Contact challenge of cattle with foot-and-mouth disease virus validates the role of the nasopharyngeal epithelium as the site of primary and persistent infection. mSphere. 2018;3. doi:10.1128/mSphere.00493-18
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenfeldt C, Eschbaumer M, Smoliga GR, et al. Clearance of a persistent picornavirus infection is associated with enhanced pro-apoptotic and cellular immune responses. Sci Rep. 2017;7:17800. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18112-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy ML P, Forsyth MA, Belsham GJ, et al. Localization of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA by in situ hybridization within bovine tissues. Virus Res. 1999;62:67–76. doi:10.1016/S0168-1702(99)00050-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandersen S, Zhang Z, Donaldson AI. Aspects of the persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus in animals—the carrier problem. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:1099–1110. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(02)01634-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang ZD, Kitching RP. The localization of persistent foot and mouth disease virus in the epithelial cells of the soft palate and pharynx. J Comp Pathol. 2001;124:89–94. doi:10.1053/jcpa.2000.0431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kajitani N, Satsuka A, Kawate A, et al. Productive lifecycle of human papillomaviruses that depends upon squamous epithelial differentiation. Front Microbiol. 2012;3:152. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar