1,661
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Governing gene-edited crops: risks, regulations, and responsibilities as perceived by agricultural genomics experts in Canada

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Article: 2167572 | Received 04 Apr 2022, Accepted 09 Jan 2023, Published online: 24 Jan 2023

References

  • Agapito-Tenfen, S. Z., A. S. Okoli, M. J. Bernstein, O.-G. Wikmark, and A. I. Myhr. 2018. “Revisiting Risk Governance of GM Plants: The Need to Consider New and Emerging Gene-Editing Techniques.” Frontiers in Plant Science 9: 1–16. doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.01874.
  • Bain, C., S. Lindberg, and T. Selfa. 2020. “Emerging Sociotechnical Imaginaries for Gene Edited Crops for Foods in the United States: Implications for Governance.” Agriculture and Human Values 37 (2): 265–279. doi:10.1007/s10460-019-09980-9.
  • Barnhill-Dilling, S. K., and J. A. Delborne. 2021. “Whose Intentions? What Consequences? Interrogating “Intended Consequences” for Conservation with Environmental Biotechnology.” Conservation Science and Practice 3 (4): 1–12. doi:10.1111/csp2.406.
  • Bernstein, H. 2016. “Agrarian Political Economy and Modern World Capitalism: The Contributions of Food Regime Analysis.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 43 (3): 611–647. doi:10.1080/03066150.2015.1101456.
  • Bierbaum, R., S. A. Leonard, D. Rejeski, C. Whaley, R. O. Barra, and C. Libre. 2020. “Novel Entities and Technologies: Environmental Benefits and Risks.” Environmental Science & Policy 105: 134–143. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2019.11.002.
  • Bijker, W. E. 2010. “How is Technology Made?-That is the Question!.” Cambridge Journal of Economics 34 (1): 63–76. doi:10.1093/cje/bep068.
  • Bijker, W. E., T. P. Hughes, and T. Pinch. 2012. The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. 25th-Year An ed. City: MIT Press.
  • Bogner, A., B. Littig, and W. Menz. 2009. Interviewing Experts (Research M). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230244276
  • Boon, M., and S. Van Baalen. 2019. “Epistemology for Interdisciplinary Research – Shifting Philosophical Paradigms of Science.” European Journal for Philosophy of Science 9 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1007/s13194-018-0242-4.
  • Bowness, E., D. James, A. A. Desmarais, A. McIntyre, T. Robin, C. Dring, and H. Wittman. 2020. “Risk and Responsibility in the Corporate Food Regime: Research Pathways Beyond the COVID-19 Crisis.” Studies in Political Economy 101 (3): 245–263. doi:10.1080/07078552.2020.1849986.
  • Böschen, S., K. Kastenhofer, L. Marschall, I. Rust, J. Soentgen, and P. Wehling. 2006. “Scientific Cultures of non-Knowledge in the Controversy Over Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): The Cases of Molecular Biology and Ecology.” GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 15 (4): 294–301. doi:10.14512/gaia.15.4.12.
  • Brinegar, K., K. Yetisen, A. Choi, S. Vallillo, E. Ruiz-Esparza, G. U. Prabhakar, A. M. Khademhosseini, A. Yun, and S. H. 2017. “The Commercialization of Genome-Editing Technologies.” Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 37 (7): 924–932. doi:10.1080/07388551.2016.1271768.
  • Brinkmann, S., and S. Kvale. 2015. “Epistemological Issues of Interviewing.” In InterViews: Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing, 3rd ed., 55–82. SAGE Publication Ltd.
  • Callaway, E. 2018. “CRISPR Plants now Subject to Tough GM Laws in European Union.” Nature 560 (7716): 16–16. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05814-6.
  • Clapp, J. 2016. Food. 2nd ed. Polity Press.
  • Clapp, J. 2018. “Mega-Mergers on the Menu: Corporate Concentration and the Politics of Sustainability in the Global Food System.” Global Environmental Politics 18 (2): 12–33. doi:10.1162/glep_a_00454.
  • Clapp, J. 2021. “Explaining Growing Glyphosate Use: The Political Economy of Herbicide-Dependent Agriculture.” Global Environmental Change 67 (January): 102239. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102239.
  • Clapp, J., and W. G. Moseley. 2020. “This Food Crisis is Different: COVID-19 and the Fragility of the Neoliberal Food Security Order.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 47 (7): 1393–1417. doi:10.1080/03066150.2020.1823838.
  • Clapp, J., and S.-L. Ruder. 2020. “Precision Technologies for Agriculture: Digital Farming, Gene-Edited Crops, and the Politics of Sustainability.” Global Environmental Politics 20 (3): 49–69. doi:10.1162/glep_a_00566.
  • Creswell, J. W., and C. N. Poth. 2018. Qualitative Inquity & Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. 4th ed. SAGE Publications Inc.
  • Dafoe, A. 2015. “On Technological Determinism.” Science, Technology, & Human Values 40 (6): 1047–1076. doi:10.1177/0162243915579283.
  • Doudna, J. 2021, December 9. New Kavli Center at UC Berkeley to Foster Ethics, Engagement in Science. Innovative Genomics Institute: Press Release. https://innovativegenomics.org/news/new-kavli-center-ethics/.
  • Döringer, S. 2021. “‘The Problem-Centred Expert Interview’. Combining Qualitative Interviewing Approaches for Investigating Implicit Expert Knowledge.” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 24 (3): 265–278. doi:10.1080/13645579.2020.1766777.
  • Duncan, E., S. Rotz, A. Magnan, and K. Bronson. 2022. “Disciplining Land Through Data: The Role of Agricultural Technologies in Farmland Assetisation.” Sociologia Ruralis 62 (2): 231–249. doi:10.1111/soru.12369.
  • Eastwood, C., L. Klerkx, M. Ayre, and B. Dela Rue. 2019. “Managing Socio-Ethical Challenges in the Development of Smart Farming: From a Fragmented to a Comprehensive Approach for Responsible Research and Innovation.” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 741–768. doi:10.1007/s10806-017-9704-5.
  • Eriksson, D., D. Kershen, A. Nepomuceno, B. J. Pogson, H. Prieto, K. Purnhagen, S. Smyth, J. Wesseler, and A. Whelan. 2019. “A Comparison of the EU Regulatory Approach to Directed Mutagenesis with That of Other Jurisdictions, Consequences for International Trade and Potential Steps Forward.” New Phytologist 222 (4): 1673–1684. doi:10.1111/nph.15627.
  • Florin, M. V. 2022. “Risk Governance and 'responsible Research and Innovation' Can be Mutually Supportive.” Journal of Risk Research, 976–990. doi:10.1080/13669877.2019.1646311.
  • Friedrichs, S., Y. Takasu, P. Kearns, B. Dagallier, R. Oshima, J. Schofield, and C. Moreddu. 2019. “An Overview of Regulatory Approaches to Genome Editing in Agriculture.” Biotechnology Research and Innovation 3), doi:10.1016/j.biori.2019.07.001.
  • Genetic Literacy Project. 2021. Human and Agriculture Gene Editing: Regulations and Index. Global Gene Editing Regulation Tracker. https://crispr-gene-editing-regs-tracker.geneticliteracyproject.org.
  • Georges, F., and H. Ray. 2017. “Genome Editing of Crops: A Renewed Opportunity for Food Security.” GM Crops & Food 8 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1080/21645698.2016.1270489.
  • Gibson, J. 2019. “Introduction: A Food System Imperiled.” In Defense of Farmers: The Future of Agriculture in the Shadow of Corporate Power, edited by J. W. Gibson, and S. E. Alexander, 1–19. University of Nebraska Press.
  • Gordon, D. R., G. Jaffe, M. Doane, A. Glaser, T. M. Gremillion, and M. D. Ho. 2021. “Responsible Governance of Gene Editing in Agriculture and the Environment.” Nature Biotechnology, doi:10.1038/s41587-021-01023-1.
  • Grübler, A. 2000. “Chapter 2: Technology and Global Change.” In Technology and Global Change, 19–90. Cambridge University Press.
  • Guston, D. H., E. Fisher, A. Grunwald, R. Owen, T. Swierstra, and S. van der Burg. 2014. “Responsible Innovation: Motivations for a new Journal.” Journal of Responsible Innovation 1 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1080/23299460.2014.885175.
  • Hartley, S., F. Gillund, L. van Hove, and F. Wickson. 2016. “Essential Features of Responsible Governance of Agricultural Biotechnology.” PLoS Biology 14 (5): e1002453–7. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002453.
  • Hartung, F., and J. Schiemann. 2014. “Precise Plant Breeding Using new Genome Editing Techniques: Opportunities, Safety and Regulation in the EU.” The Plant Journal 78 (5): 742–752. doi:10.1111/tpj.12413.
  • Health Canada. 2022. Scientific opinion on the regulation of gene-edited plant products within the context of Division 28 of the Food and Drug Regulations (Novel Foods).
  • Helliwell, R., S. Hartley, and W. Pearce. 2019. “NGO Perspectives on the Social and Ethical Dimensions of Plant Genome-Editing.” Agriculture and Human Values 36 (4): 779–791. doi:10.1007/s10460-019-09956-9.
  • Howard, P. H. 2016. Concentration and Power in the Food System. Bloomsbury.
  • IPES-FOOD. 2016. From Uniformity to Diversity: A paradigm shift from industrial agriculture to diversified agroecological systems. www.ipes-food.org.
  • Jasanoff, S. 2004. States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and Social Order. Routledge.
  • Jasanoff, S. 2016. The Ethics of Invention: Technology and the Human Future. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
  • Jones, H. D. 2015. “Regulatory Uncertainty Over Genome Editing.” Nature Plants 1 (January): 2014–2016. doi:10.1038/nplants.2014.11.
  • Kato-Nitta, N., T. Maeda, Y. Inagaki, and M. Tachikawa. 2019. “Expert and Public Perceptions of Gene-Edited Crops: Attitude Changes in Relation to Scientific Knowledge.” Palgrave Communications 5 (1), doi:10.1057/s41599-019-0328-4.
  • Keen, S., M. Lomeli-Rodriguez, and H. Joffe. 2022. “From Challenge to Opportunity: Virtual Qualitative Research During COVID-19 and Beyond.” International Journal of Qualitative Methods 21, doi:10.1177/16094069221105075.
  • Klerkx, L., and D. Rose. 2020. “Dealing with the Game-Changing Technologies of Agriculture 4.0: How do we Manage Diversity and Responsibility in Food System Transition Pathways?” Global Food Security 24, doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2019.100347.
  • Klümper, W., and M. Qaim. 2014. “A Meta-Analysis of the Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops.” PLoS ONE 9, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111629.
  • Kuzma, J. 2018. “Regulating Gene-Edited Crops.” Issues in Science and Technology 35 (1): 80–85.
  • Lander, E. S. 2016. “The Heroes of CRISPR.” Cell 164: 18–28. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.12.041.
  • Lassoued, R., P. W. B. Phillips, D. M. Macall, H. Hesseln, and S. J. Smyth. 2021. “Expert Opinions on the Regulation of Plant Genome Editing.” Plant Biotechnology Journal 19 (6): 1104–1109. doi:10.1111/pbi.13597.
  • Leonardi, P. M., and M. H. Jackson. 2004. “Technological Determinism and Discursive Closure in Organizational Mergers.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 17 (6): 615–631. doi:10.1108/09534810410564587.
  • Ludwig, D., C. Leeuwis, and B. K. Boogaard. 2022. “Making Knowledge Work Differently: The Politics of Knowledge in Inclusive Development and Innovation.” In The Politics of Knowledge in Inclusive Development and Innovation, edited by C. L. David Ludwig, Birgit Boogaard, and Phil Macnaghten, 1–16. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003112525-101
  • Lynch, J. F. 2013. “Aligning Sampling Strategies with Analytic Goals.” In Interview Research in Political Science, edited by L. Mosley, 31–44. Cornell University Press.
  • MacKenzie, D., and J. Wajcman. 1985. “Introductory Essay: The Social Shaping of Technology.” In The Social Shaping of Technology, edited by D. MacKenzie, and J. Wajcman, 2nd ed., 3–16. Open University Press.
  • Macnaghten, P., and M. G. J. L. Habets. 2020. “Breaking the Impasse: Towards a Forward-Looking Governance Framework for Gene Editing with Plants.” Plants, people, planet 2 (4): 353–365. doi:10.1002/ppp3.10107.
  • Macnaghten, P., E. Shah, and D. Ludwig. 2021. “Making Dialogue Work: Responsible Innovation and Gene Editing.” In The Politics of Knowledge in Inclusive Development and Innovation, edited by C. L. David Ludwig, Birgit Boogaard, and Phil Macnaghten, 165–180. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003112525-15
  • Magnan, A. 2014. “Economy of Agriculture and Food.” In Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics, edited by Paul B. Thompson, and David M. Kaplan, 533–540. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0929-4
  • Markham, A. 2021. “The Limits of the Imaginary: Challenges to Intervening in Future Speculations of Memory, Data, and Algorithms.” New Media & Society 23 (2): 382–405. doi:10.1177/1461444820929322.
  • Marris, C. 2015. “The Construction of Imaginaries of the Public as a Threat to Synthetic Biology.” Science as Culture 24 (1): 83–98. doi:10.1080/09505431.2014.986320.
  • McMichael, P. 2013. Food Regimes and Agrarian Questions: Agrarian Change and Peasant Studies.
  • Mehrabi, Z., R. Delzeit, A. Ignaciuk, C. Levers, G. Braich, and K. Bajaj. 2022. “Research Priorities for Global Food Security Under Extreme Events.” One Earth 5: 756–766. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2022.06.008.
  • Middelveld, S., and P. Macnaghten. 2021. “Gene Editing of Livestock.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 9 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1525/elementa.2020.00073.
  • Middelveld, S., P. Macnaghten, and F. Meijboom. 2022. “Imagined Futures for Livestock Gene Editing: Public Engagement in the Netherlands.” Public Understanding of Science 00(00): 096366252211119–16. doi:10.1177/09636625221111900.
  • Montenegro de Wit, M. 2020. “Democratizing CRISPR? Stories, Practices, and Politics of Science and Governance on the Agricultural Gene Editing Frontier.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 8), doi:10.1525/elementa.405.
  • Montenegro de Wit, M. 2022. “Can Agroecology and CRISPR mix? The Politics of Complementarity and Moving Toward Technology Sovereignty.” Agriculture and Human Values, doi:10.1007/s10460-021-10284-0.
  • Motta, R. 2014. “Social Disputes Over GMOs: An Overview.” Sociology Compass 8 (12): 1360–1376. doi:10.1111/soc4.12229.
  • Nature Genetics. 2019. “Genomics and our Future Food Security.” Nature Genetics 51 (2): 197. doi:10.1038/s41588-019-0352-8.
  • Nawaz, S., and M. Kandlikar. 2021. “Drawing Lines in the Sand? Paths Forward for Triggering Regulation of Gene-Edited Crops.” Science and Public Policy, 246–256. doi:10.1093/scipol/scab014.
  • Nawaz, S., S. Klassen, and A. Lyon. 2020. “Tensions at the Boundary: Rearticulating ‘Organic’ Plant Breeding in the age of Gene Editing.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 8: 1–21. doi:10.1525/elementa.429.
  • Nawaz, S., and T. Satterfield. 2022. “Climate Solution or Corporate co-Optation? US and Canadian Publics’ Views on Agricultural Gene Editing.” PLoS ONE 17 (3): e0265635–19. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265635.
  • Nicol, Di., R. C. Dreyfuss, E. R. Gold, W. Li, J. Liddicoat, and G. Van Overwalle. 2019. “International Divergence in Gene Patenting.” Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 20: 519–541. doi:10.1146/annurev-genom-083118-015112.
  • The Nobel Prize. 2020, October 7. Press Release: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020. 1–4. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2007/press.html.
  • Owen, R., P. Macnaghten, and J. Stilgoe. 2012. “Responsible Research and Innovation: From Science in Society to Science for Society, with Society.” Science and Public Policy 39 (6): 751–760. doi:10.1093/scipol/scs093.
  • Owen, R., J. Stilgoe, P. Macnaghten, M. Gorman, E. Fisher, and D. Guston. 2013. “A Framework for Responsible Innovation.” In Responsible Innovation: Managing the Responsible Emergence of Science and Innovation in Society, edited by R. Owen, J. Bessant, and M. Heintz, 27–50. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118551424.ch2
  • Owen, R., R. von Schomberg, and P. Macnaghten. 2021. “An Unfinished Journey? Reflections on a Decade of Responsible Research and Innovation.” Journal of Responsible Innovation 8 (2): 217–233. doi:10.1080/23299460.2021.1948789.
  • Parkhill, K., N. Pidgeon, A. Corner, and N. Vaughan. 2013. “Deliberation and Responsible Innovation: A Geoengineering Case Study.” In Responsible Innovation: Managing the Responsible Emergence of Science and Innovation in Society, edited by R. Owen, J. Bessant, and M. Heintz, 219–239. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118551424.ch12
  • Pavone, V., J. Goven, and R. Guarino. 2011. “From Risk Assessment to in-Context Trajectory Evaluation - GMOs and Their Social Implications.” Environmental Sciences Europe 23 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1186/2190-4715-23-3.
  • Pinch, T. J., and W. E. Bijker. 1989. “The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other.” In The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technolog, edited by W. E. Bijker, T. P. Hughes, and T. J. Pinch. MIT Press.
  • Qaim, M. 2020. “Role of New Plant Breeding Technologies for Food Security and Sustainable Agricultural Development.” Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 42 (2): 129–150. doi:10.1002/aepp.13044.
  • Regan, Á. 2021. “Exploring the Readiness of Publicly Funded Researchers to Practice Responsible Research and Innovation in Digital Agriculture.” Journal of Responsible Innovation 8 (1): 28–47. doi:10.1080/23299460.2021.1904755.
  • Reid, G., and R. E. Sieber. 2021. “Unavoidable expertise, ‘technocratic positionality,’ and GIScience: eliciting an indigenous geospatial ontology with the Eastern Cree in Northern Quebec.” Gender, Place & Culture 28 (4): 541–563. doi:10.1080/0966369X.2020.1811209.
  • Roberts, P., J. Herkert, and J. Kuzma. 2020. “Responsible Innovation in Biotechnology: Stakeholder Attitudes and Implications for Research Policy.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 8, doi:10.1525/elementa.446.
  • Rose, D. C., and J. Chilvers. 2018. “Agriculture 4.0: Broadening Responsible Innovation in an Era of Smart Farming.” Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 2 (87): 1–7. doi:10.3389/fsufs.2018.00087.
  • RRI Tools Consortium. 2021. What is RRI? RRI Toolkit. https://rri-tools.eu/about-rri.
  • Schensul, S. L., J. J. Schensul, and M. D. LeCompte. 1999. Essential Ethnographic Methods: Observations, Interviews, and Questions. AltaMira Press.
  • Smallman, M. 2020. “‘Nothing to do with the Science’: How an Elite Sociotechnical Imaginary Cements Policy Resistance to Public Perspectives on Science and Technology Through the Machinery of Government.” Social Studies of Science 50 (4): 589–608. doi:10.1177/0306312719879768.
  • Stilgoe, J., R. Owen, and P. Macnaghten. 2013. “Developing a Framework for Responsible Innovation.” Research Policy 42 (9): 1568–1580. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2013.05.008.
  • Stone, G. D. 2007. “Agricultural Deskilling and the Spread of Genetically Modified Cotton in Warangal.” Current Anthropology 48), doi:10.1086/508689.
  • Stone, G. D. 2017. “Dreading CRISPR: GMOs, Honest Brokers, and Mertonian Transgressions.” Geographical Review 107 (4): 584–591. doi:10.1111/gere.12260.
  • Szymanski, E. A., R. D. J. Smith, and J. Calvert. 2021. “Responsible Research and Innovation Meets Multispecies Studies: Why RRI Needs to be a More-Than-Human Exercise.” Journal of Responsible Innovation 8 (0): 261–266. doi:10.1080/23299460.2021.1906040.
  • Tourangeau, W., and C. Smith. 2015. “GRAB - SYNTHESIS The Valorization of GMOs and the de-Valorization of Farmers’ Contributions to Biodiversity—Synthesis Paper.” Canadian Food Studies / La Revue Canadienne des études sur L'alimentation 2 (2): 217. doi:10.15353/cfs-rcea.v2i2.131.
  • van Oudheusden, M. 2014. “Where are the Politics in Responsible Innovation? European Governance, Technology Assessments, and Beyond.” Journal of Responsible Innovation 1 (1): 67–86. doi:10.1080/23299460.2014.882097.
  • von Schomberg, R. 2013. “A Vision of Responsible Research and Innovation.” In Responsible Innovation: Managing the Responsible Emergence of Science and Innovation in Society, edited by R. Owen, J. Bessant, and M. Heintz, 51–74. John Wiley & Sons.
  • von Schomberg, R. 2019. “Why Responsible Innovation?” In International Handbook on Responsible Innovation, edited by R. Von Schomberg, and J. Hankins, 12–32. Edward Elgar. doi:10.4337/9781784718862
  • Wang, W., X. H. Cao, M. Miclǎu, J. Xu, and W. Xiong. 2017. “The Promise of Agriculture Genomics.” International Journal of Genomics, doi:10.1155/2017/9743749.
  • Weis, T. 2007. The Global Food Economy: The Battle for the Future of Food. Fernwood Publishing.
  • Winner, L. 1989. The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology. University of Chicago Press.
  • Xu, J., K. Hua, and Z. Lang. 2019. “Genome Editing for Horticultural Crop Improvement.” Horticulture Research 6 (1), doi:10.1038/s41438-019-0196-5.
  • Zhang, Y., K. Massel, I. D. Godwin, and C. Gao. 2019. “Correction to: Applications and Potential of Genome Editing in Crop Improvement.” Genome Biology 20, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-019-1622-6.