Revisiting Kenya’s defunct Building Bridges Initiative: Quest for justice, or manipulation of collective memory for political expediency?

References

• Abade, J. (2022). Functional linguistic analysis of the 2018 Uhuru–Raila handshake discourse in Kenya [ unpublished master’s thesis]. Maseno University. https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/5546/Jude%20Abade.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
   Google Scholar
• Abade, J. O., Onyango, P. O., & Okello, J. (2022). Perceptions in Uhuru-Raila 9th March, 2018 handshake discourse in Kenya’s print media. Scholars International Journal of Linguistics and Literature, 5(1), 25–23. https://doi.org/10.36348/sijll.2022.v05i01.003
   Google Scholar
• Abu-Nimer, M. (Ed.). (2001). Reconciliation, justice, and coexistence: Theory and practice. Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Agutu, N. (2017, November 28). Cops fire tear gas, seal off jacaranda grounds ahead of NASA rally. The Star. https://www.thestar.co.ke/news/2017/11/28/video-cops-fire-tear-gas-seal-off-jacaranda-grounds-ahead-ofnasa_c1676793
   Google Scholar
• Agutu, N. (2018a, February 12). Envoys’ charges against Raila harmful to Kenya—Salim Lone. The Star. https://www.thestar.co.ke/news/2018/02/12/envoys-charges-against-raila-harmful-to-kenya-salim-lone_c171306
   Google Scholar
• Agutu, N. (2018b, January 30). Raila ‘sworn-in’ as people’s president, Kalonzo absent. The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2018/01/30/raila-sworn-in-as-peoples-president-kalonzo-absent_c1706244
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, M. (2017, November 3). Hassan Joho, Amason Kingi call for breakaway of Coast. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/Hassan-Joho-Amason-Kingi-call-for-breakaway-of-Coast-from-Kenya/1056-4172150-2rxmh2z/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Akech, J. G., & Mading, M. G. (2021, May 18). What lessons could be drawn from the Kenyan high court judgement on BBI for constitutional consolidation in South Sudan?. Sudd Institute. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep39820
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. (2017, October 15). “Kill those criminals”: Security forces violations in Kenya’s August 2017 elections. https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/10/15/kill-those-criminals/security-forces-violations-kenyasaugust-2017-elections
   Google Scholar
• Apollo, S., & Misiko, H. (2017, October 25). Nasa now a resistance movement: Raila. Business Daily. https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/economy/Nasa-resistance-movement-Raila-election/3946234-4155902-irty25/index.html
   Google Scholar
• The Associated Press. (2017, October 25). The latest: Kenyan opposition explains lack of quorum. The Associated Press. https://wtop.com/africa/2017/10/the-latest-kenya-supreme-court-cant-hear-petition-on-vote/
   Google Scholar
• Burke, J. (2017, November 28). Kenyatta sworn in for second term as Kenya’s president amid protests. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/28/kenyatta-sworn-in-second-term-kenya-president-protests
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. (2017, November 1). Odinga calls for a ‘people’s Assembly’ to govern Kenya in place of Kenyatta. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/blog/odinga-calls-peoples-assembly-govern-kenya-place-kenyatta
   Google Scholar
• Cherono, S. (2017a, August 15). Fazul Mohamed’s sword now targets AfriCOG. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/africa/NGOs-board-shuts-Africa-Centre-for-Open-Governance-AfriCOG/1066-4057960-soyu16/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Cherono, S. (2017b, August 14). NGOs board de-registers KHRC. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/kenya-Human-Rights-Commissionderegistered-/1056-4057174-10291od/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Conradson, D. (2005). Focus groups. In R. Flowerdew & D. Martin (Eds.), Methods in human geography: A guide for students doing a research project (pp. 128–143). Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Curry, J. L. (2007). When an authoritarian state victimizes the nation: Transitional justice, collective memory, and political divides. International Journal of Sociology, 37(1), 58–73. https://doi.org/10.2753/IJS0020-7659370104
   Google Scholar
• De Gruchy, J. W. (2002). Reconciliation: Restoring justice. Fortress Press.
   Google Scholar
• Franke, K. M. (2006). Gendered subjects of transitional justice. Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, 15(3), 813–828. https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship/493
   Google Scholar
• Galindo, B., & de Castro, J. P. (2018). The rights to memory and truth in the inter-American paradigms of transitional justice: The cases of Brazil and Chile. Brazilian Journal of International Law, 15(2), 308–324. https://doi.org/10.5102/rdi.v15i2.5064
   Google Scholar
• García de la Torre, C., & Aramburo, C. (2011). Geografías de la guerra, el poder y la resistencia. Oriente y Urabá antioqueños 1990–2008. ODECOFI.
   Google Scholar
• Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays by Clifford Geertz. Hutchinson.
   Google Scholar
• Gomez, C. T. (2022). Victims’ collective memory and transitional justice in post-conflict Colombia: The case of the March of light. Memory Studies, 15(2), 376–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750698019882055
   Google Scholar
• Granados, J. R. (2015). Transitional justice in Spain (1975-2015) a legal perspective and its political implications: Truth and memory. In G. Diop (Ed.), Religious freedom & human solidarity: Living with our deepest differences (pp. 58–69). International Religious Liberty Association.
   Google Scholar
• Haebich, A. (2011). Forgetting indigenous histories: Cases from the history of Australia’s stolen generations. Journal of Social History, 44(4), 1033–1046. https://doi.org/10.1353/jsh.2011.0042
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höhn, S. (2010). International justice and reconciliation in Namibia: The ICC submission and public memory. African Affairs, 109(436), 471–488. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adp087
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. (1994). World Report 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. (2018). Human rights world report 2018: Events of 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. (2019). Human rights world report 2019: Events of 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Jazeera News, A. (2017, November 18). Kenya: Five killed as Odinga return marred by violence. Al Jazeera News. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/11/kenya-killed-odinga-return-marred-violence-171117215255423.html
   Google Scholar
• Jebari, I. (2018). Therapeutic history and the enduring memories of violence in Algeria and Morocco. Middle East–Topics & Arguments, 11, 108–119. https://doi.org/10.17192/meta.2018.11.7808
   Google Scholar
• Kahura, D. (2017, December 23). Hitting where it hurts: How effective has NASA’s boycott been? The Elephant. https://www.theelephant.info/features/2017/12/23/hitting-where-it-hurts-how-effective-has-nasas-boycott-been/
   Google Scholar
• Kanyugi, G. E., & Gudda, P. (2019). Dynamics in the business environment: Effect of the building bridges initiative on performance of Nairobi Securities Exchange, Kenya. International Journal of Research in Management, Economics and Commerce, 9(3), 38–42.
   Google Scholar
• Katiti, K. J. (2020). Kenyan Building Bridges initiative weighed? World Journal of Innovative Research, 8(5), 115–120.
   Google Scholar
• Kimari, W., Rasmussen, J., & Melchiorre, L. (2021, July 8). Kenyan youth and the Building Bridges initiative (BBI): Déjà vu all over again. https://www.proquest.com/wire-feeds/kenyan-youth-building-bridges-initiativebbi/docview/2549592105/se-2?accountid=15083
   Google Scholar
• Kimenye, P. K. (2022). A discourse analysis of selected political speeches of President Uhuru Kenyatta and the former Prime Minister, Raila Amollo Odinga [ unpublished master’s thesis]. Machakos University. http://ir.mksu.ac.ke/handle/123456780/12613
   Google Scholar
• Kirwa, K., Kimathi, C. K., & Ouno, V. O. (2022). Redressive action in political discourse in the face of conflicting views: A case of the Building Bridges initiative in Kenya. International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 7(5), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijels.75.1
   Google Scholar
• Kisiangani, E., & Saida, L. (2012, March 2). Kenya: Outlawed group calls for secession. Pambazuka News. https://www.pambazuka.org/governance/kenya-outlawed-group-calls-secession
   Google Scholar
• Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2015). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (5th ed.). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Kuo, L., & Dahir, A. L. (2017, January 19). Gambia’s new president has been sworn in at an embassy in Senegal because the old one won’t leave. Quartz Africa. https://qz.com/africa/889272/gambias-new-president-adama-barrow-is-being-sworn-in-at-an-embassy-in-neighboring-senegal/
   Google Scholar
• Kuria, G. (2021, May 13). Kenyan court declares president’s constitutional amendment bid “unconstitutional, null and void”. CTGN. https://africa.cgtn.com/2021/05/13/kenyan-court-declares-presidents-constitutional-amendment-bid-unconstitutional-null-and-void/
   Google Scholar
• Lang’at, P. (2017, November 13). MP Peter Kaluma drafts bill for secession of 40 counties. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/politics/Peter-Kaluma-secession-40-counties/1064-4185586-13tcbf3z/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Lang’at, P., & Luvega, D. (2017, November 11). Secrets of Raila US tour revealed. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/politics/Secrets-of-Raila-US-tour-revealed/1064-4183238-whtjn9/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Llewellyn, J. J., & Philpott, D. (Eds.). (2014). Restorative justice, reconciliation, and peacebuilding. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lonsdale, J. M. (1992). The moral economy of Mau Mau: The problem. In B. Berman & J. M. Lonsdale (Eds.), Unhappy valley conflict in Kenya & Africa (pp. 265–504). Ohio University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loyle, C. E. (2018). Transitional justice and political order in Rwanda. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(4), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1366537
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, G. (2009). Durable solution, help or hindrance? The failings and unintended implications of relief and recovery efforts for Kenya’s post-election IDPs. Review of African Political Economy, 36(122), 604–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240903346194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misztal, B. (2003). Theories of social remembering. Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moosa, M. (2018, April 27). Reconciliation in Kenya: Partisan differences and common ground. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 201. https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/migrated/files/publications/Dispatches/ab_r7_dispatchno201_partisan_differences_and_common_ground_in_kenya.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Muga, W. (2017, November 10). Why call to secede chills central Kenya with terror. The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2017/11/10/why-call-to-secede-chills-central-kenya-with-terror_c1667360
   Google Scholar
• Muhoma, C., & Nyairo, J. (2011). Inscribing memory, healing a nation: Post-election violence and the search for truth and justice in Kenya burning. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 5(3), 411–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2011.614849
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutavi, L. K. (2021). Analysing the print media commentary of the Building Bridges Initiative in Kenya through editorial cartoons: A study of the Daily Nation and the Standard Newspapers [ unpublished master’s thesis]. University of Nairobi. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/160353
   Google Scholar
• Ndii, D. (2016, March 26). Kenya is a cruel marriage, it’s time we talk divorce. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/oped/opinion/Kenya-is-a-cruel-marriage–it-s-time-we-talk-divorce/440808-3134132-154vra2/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Ngumo, M. C., & Omoke, L. K. (2021). Analysis of Kenya’s newspaper headlines: The handshake and shifting political alliances. Language Text Society, 8(1), 1–13. https://ltsj.online/20%2021-08-1-ngumo-omoke
   Google Scholar
• Nora, P. (1989). Between memory and history: Les lieux de mémoire. Representations, 26, 7–25. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928520
   Google Scholar
• Nyamori, M., & Ng’etich, J. (2021, May 12). Senate passes BBI Bill, sets stage for referendum plans. The Standard. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/politics/article/2001412600/referendum-looms-as-bbi-bill-enters-homestretch
   Google Scholar
• Oduor, M. (2016, May 11). Uganda’s opposition leader arrested after swearing himself to office. Africa News. http://www.africanews.com/2016/05/11/uganda-s-opposition-leader-arrested-after-swearing-himself-to-office/
   Google Scholar
• Onguny, P. (2020). The politics behind Kenya’s Building Bridges initiative (BBI): Vindu vichenjanga or sound and fury, signifying nothing? Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines, 54(3), 557–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.2020.1832898
   Google Scholar
• Onyango, P., & Otieno, R. (2018, January 31). Raila sworn in as the ‘people’s president’ as Kalonzo, wetang’ula, and Mudavadi skip event. Standard Digital. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001267850/raila-sworn-in-as-the-people-s-president-as-kalonzo-wetang-ula-and-mudavadi-skip-event
   Google Scholar
• Philpott, D. (2012). Just and unjust peace: An ethic of political reconciliation. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199827565.001.0001
   Google Scholar
• Presidential Taskforce on Building Bridges to Unity Advisory. (2019) . Building bridges to a united Kenya: From a nation of blood ties to a nation of ideals. Kenyatta International Convention Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Roznai, Y., & Okubasu, D. M. (2022, September 26). Stability of constitutional structures and identity amidst political bipartisanship: Lessons from Kenya and Israel. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4229657
   Google Scholar
• Shutzer, M. A. (2012). The politics of home: Displacement and resettlement in postcolonial Kenya. African Studies, 71(3), 346–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/00020184.2012.740879
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmons, A. (2018, January 26). Kenya has one president. In a political showdown, it’s about to swear in another. Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-global-kenya-odinga-swearing-in-20180126-story.html
   Google Scholar
• Snurr, C. (2018). Raila Odinga weighs in on disputed Kenyan presidential election. Diplomatic Pouch. Retrieved August 11, 2018, from http://www.washdiplomat.com/PouchArticle/cms/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=612
   Google Scholar
• Szczerbiak, A. (2017). Communist-forgiving or communist-purging?: Public attitudes towards transitional justice and truth revelation in post-1989 Poland. Europe-Asia Studies, 69(2), 325–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2017.1279590
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tumarkin, M. M. (2011). The long life of Stalinism: Reflections on the aftermath of totalitarianism and social memory. Journal of Social History, 44(4), 1047–1061. https://doi.org/10.1353/jsh.2011.0043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wambua, M. (2019, November 14). Building Bridges initiative: Is the Kenyatta-Odinga handshake the panacea for Kenya’s peacebuilding agenda? https://kujenga-amani.ssrc.org/2019/11/14/building-bridges-initiative-is-the-kenyatta-odinga-handshake-the-panacea-for-kenyas-peacebuilding-agenda/
   Google Scholar
• Waterhouse, C. (2011). Total recall: Restoring the public memory of enslaved African-Americans and the American system of slavery through rectificatory justice and reparations. Journal of Gender, Race & Justice, 14(3), 703–746.
   Google Scholar
• Wezel, K. (2016). The unfinished business of perestroika: Latvia’s memory politics and its quest for acknowledgment of victimhood in Europe. Nationalities Papers, 44(4), 560–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2016.1142520
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whigham, K. E. (2017). Remembering to prevent: The preventive capacity of public memory. Genocide Studies & Prevention: An International Journal, 11(2), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.5038/1911-9933.11.2.1447
   Google Scholar