Cyber statecraft by net states: the case of Meta, 2016–2021

References

• Agnew, J. 1994. “The Territorial Trap: The Geographical Assumptions of International Relations Theory.” Review of International Political Economy 1 (1): 53–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692299408434268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atlantic Council. n.d. Cyber Statecraft Initiative. Accessed 25 March 2021. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/programs/scowcroft-center-for-strategy-and-security/cyber-statecraft-initiative/.
   Google Scholar
• Barlow, J. P. 1996. “A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace.” Electronic Frontier Foundation. Accessed 1 October 2020. https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence.
   Google Scholar
• Baur, D., and D. Arenas. 2014. “The Value of Unregulated Business-NGO Interaction.” Business & Society 53 (2): 157–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650312452868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Best, J., and W. Walters. 2013. “Translating the Sociology of Translation.” International Political Sociology 7 (3): 345–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/ips.12026_5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bickert, M. 2020. “Charting a Way Forward: Online Content Regulation.” Facebook. Accessed 28 November 2020. https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Charting-A-Way-Forward_Online-Content-Regulation-White-Paper-1.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Blount, P. J. 2019. Reprogramming the World. Bristol: E-International Relations Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Bond, R. M., C. J. Fariss, J. J. Jones, A. D. Kramer, C. Marlow, J. E. Settle, and J. H. Fowler. 2012. “A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization.” Nature 489 (7415): 295–298. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bremmer, I. 2021. “The Technopolar Moment: How Digital Powers Will Reshape the Global Order.” Foreign Affairs 100 (6): 112–128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callon, M. 1984. “Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay.” In Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge?, edited by J. Law, 196–223. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Castells, M. 2004. “Afterword: Why Networks Matter.” In Network Logic: Who Governs in an Interconnected World?, edited by H. McCarthy, P. Miller, and P. Sidmore, 219–225. London: Demos Collection.
   Google Scholar
• CBS News. 2019. “Meet Facebook's Libra, a Digital Currency for the Social Network.” CBS News. Accessed 26 July 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/facebook-cryptocurrency-libra-a-digital-currency-for-the-social-network/.
   Google Scholar
• Cellan-Jones, R. 2021. “Facebook v. Australia: Who Blinked First?” BBC News, 23 February. Accessed 9 March 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-56168843.
   Google Scholar
• Creemers, R. 2020. “China’s Conception of Cyber Sovereignty: Rhetoric and Realization.” In Governing Cyberspace – Behaviour, Power and Diplomacy, edited by D. Broeders, and B. van den Berg, 107–142. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Deleuze, G. 1988. Foucault. Translated and edited by S. Hand. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Deleuze, G. 1992. “Postscript on the Societies of Control.” October 59: 3–7.
   Google Scholar
• DeNardis, L. 2016. “Introduction.” In Global Commission on Internet Governance, Research Volume Two: Who Runs the Internet? The Global Multi-Stakeholder Model of Internet Governance. Centre for International Governance Innovation and Chatham House, 1–4. Accessed 10 June 2021. https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/documents/GCIG%20Volume%202.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• DeNardis, L., and A. M. Hackl. 2015. “Internet Governance by Social Media Platforms.” Telecommunications Policy 39: 761–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2015.04.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easton, W. 2021. “Changes to Sharing and Viewing News on Facebook in Australia.” Facebook Newsroom. Accessed 25 February 2021. https://about.fb.com/news/2021/02/changes-to-sharing-and-viewing-news-on-facebook-in-australia/.
   Google Scholar
• Egloff, F. J. 2022. Semi-State Actors in Cybersecurity. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• eSafety Commissioner. 2022. “New Online Safety Laws Come Into Force.” Australian Government ESafety Commissioner. Accessed 30 June 2022. https://www.esafety.gov.au/newsroom/media-releases/new-online-safety-laws-come-force.
   Google Scholar
• Evans, R. 2019. “The State of California Could Have Stopped 8Chan: It Didn’t.” Bellingcat, 4 November. Accessed 20 March 2021. https://www.bellingcat.com/news/2019/11/04/the-state-of-california-could-have-stopped-8chan-it-didnt/.
   Google Scholar
• Facebook. 2020. “Facebook Reports Second Quarter 2020 Results.” Facebook. Accessed 25 March 2021. https://s21.q4cdn.com/399680738/files/doc_financials/2020/q2/Q2'20-FB-Financial-Results-Press-Release.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Facebook. n.d. About Facebook, Facebook. Accessed 10 April 2021. https://about.fb.com/company-info/.
   Google Scholar
• Fairbank, N. A. 2019. “The State of Microsoft?: The Role of Corporations in International Norm Creation.” Journal of Cyber Policy 4 (3): 380–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2019.1696852.
   Google Scholar
• Farrell, H., M. Levi, and T. O’Reill. 2018. “March Zuckerberg Runs a Nation-State, and He’s the King.” Vox, 10 April. Accessed 28 March 2021. https://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2018/4/9/17214752/zuckerberg-facebook-power-regulation-data-privacy-control-political-theory-data-breach-king.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, N. 2018. The Square and the Tower: Networks and Power, from the Freemasons to Facebook. New York: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Y. H., and R. W. Mansbach. 2007. “Post-internationalism and IR Theory.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 35 (3): 529–549. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298070350031001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foucault, M. 2009. Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France 1977–1978. Translated and edited by M. Senellart. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Fukuyama, F., B. Richman, and A. Goel. 2021. “How to Save Democracy from Technology: Ending Big Tech’s Information Monopoly.” Foreign Affairs 100 (1): 98–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson, W. 1984. Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books.
   Google Scholar
• Gilboa, E. 2016. “Digital Diplomacy.” In The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy, edited by C. M. Constantinou, P. Kerr, and P. Sharp, 540–551. London: SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, T. 2018. “Platforms and Hyper-Choice on the World Wide Web.” Big Data and Society. Accessed 27 April 2021, https://eprints.qut.edu.au/127919/1/2053951718765878.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Habermas, J. 2001. The Postnational Constellation. Translated and edited by M. Pensky. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harvey, C. 2021. Mapping the net State: Towards a Framework for Cyber Statecraft.” Honours Thesis. Australia: University of Wollongong.
   Google Scholar
• Harvey, C. J. 2022. “The State-Like Turn: Comparing Models for Cyber State-Ness.” Paper Presented at The Hague Conference on International Cyber Security 2022: Navigating Narratives in Cyberspace, Leiden University.
   Google Scholar
• Harvey, C. J., and C. L. Moore. 2023. “The Client Net State: Trajectories of State Control Over Cyberspace.” Policy & Internet, https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.334.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heemsbergen, L., and A. Molnar. 2020. “VPNS as Boundary Objects of the Internet: (mis)Trust in the Translation(s).” Internet Policy Review 9 (4), https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.4.1513.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoskin, P., and A. Mostrous. 2020. “Welcome to Apple: A one-Party State.” Tortoise, 6 January. Accessed 1 May 2021. https://members.tortoisemedia.com/2020/01/06/day-1-apple-state-of-the-nation-2/content.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hurel, L. M., and L. C. Lobat. 2018. “Unpacking Cyber Norms: Private Companies as Norm Entrepreneurs.” Journal of Cyber Policy 3 (1): 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2018.1467942.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, J. 2021. “Digital Intermediation: Unseen Infrastructures for Cultural Production.” New Media & Society, https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211040247.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Monetary Fund World Economic Outlook Database. Accessed 14 November 2020. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/weo-report?c=942,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,&sy=2018&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1.
   Google Scholar
• Kaiser, B. 2019. Targeted: The Cambridge Analytica Whistleblower’s Inside Story of How Big Data, Trump, and Facebook Broke Democracy and How It Can Happen Again. New York: HarperCollins.
   Google Scholar
• Kollars, N. 2020. “Cyber Conflict as an Intelligence Competition in an Era of Open Innovation.” In Texas National Security Review Policy Roundtable: Cyber Conflict as an Intelligence Contest, edited by R. Chesney and M Smeets. Accessed 5 May 2021. https://tnsr.org/roundtable/policy-roundtable-cyber-conflict-as-an-intelligence-contest/#essay5.
   Google Scholar
• Kreiss, D., and S. C. McGregor. 2018. “Technology Firms Shape Political Communication: The Work of Microsoft, Facebook, Twitter, and Google with Campaigns During the 2016 U.S. Presidential Cycle.” Political Communication 35: 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2017.1364814.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, D., and R. Roccu. 2019. “Case Study Research and Critical IR: The Case for the Extended Case Methodology.” International Relations 33 (1): 67–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117818818243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lake, D. A. 2008. “The State and International Relations.” In The Oxford Handbook of International Relations, edited by C. Reus-Smit, and D. Snidal, 41–61. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Latour, B. 1991. “Technology is Society Made Durable.” In A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination, edited by J. Law, 103–131. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Latour, B. 2005. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor–Network-Theory. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leaver, T. 2021. “Going Dark.” M/C Journal 24 (2), https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2774.
   Google Scholar
• Lessig, L. 2006. Code: Version 2.0. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Levy, P. 2001. Cyberculture. Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Levy, S. 2020. Facebook: The Inside Story. New York: Blue Rider Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loader, B. D., and D. Mercea. 2011. “Networking Democracy?” Information, Communication & Society 14 (6): 757–769. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2011.592648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madrigal, A. C. 2017. “What Facebook Did to American Democracy.” The Atlantic. Accessed 20 March 2021. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2017/10/what-facebook-did/542502/.
   Google Scholar
• Maurer, T. 2016. “‘Proxies’ and Cyberspace.” Journal of Conflict and Security Law 21 (3): 383–403. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krw015.
   Google Scholar
• McNamee, R. 2019. Zucked: Waking Up to the Facebook Catastrophe. New York: Penguin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mosco, V. 2004. The Digital Sublime: Myth, Power and Cyberspace. Boston: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mossberger, K., C. J. Tolbert, and R. S. McNeal. 2008. Digital Citizenship: The Internet, Society and Participation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• NBC News. 2018. “Senator Asks How Facebooks Remains Free, Mark Zuckerberg Smirks: ‘we Run Ads’ | NBC News.” YouTube Video, 11 April. Accessed 20 March 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2H8wx1aBiQ.
   Google Scholar
• Nolan, B., and G. Kay. 2022. “Elon Musk’s Plan to Turn Twitter Into a Super app is a Step Closer now That he Owns the Platform.” Business Insider, 29 October. Accessed 27 February 2023. https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-twitter-super-app-x-2022-10.
   Google Scholar
• NT News. 2021. “Australia Under Attack.” Twitter. Accessed 18 Feb 2021. https://twitter.com/TheNTNews/status/1362210835540582402/photo/1.
   Google Scholar
• Osiander, A. 2001. “Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth.” International Organization 55 (2): 251–287. https://doi.org/10.1162/00208180151140577.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen, T. 2016. “The Networked State and the end of 20th Century Diplomacy.” Global Affairs 2 (3): 301–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2016.1239375.
   Google Scholar
• Passoth, J., and N. J. Rowland. 2010. “Actor-Network State.” International Sociology 25 (6): 818–841. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580909351325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pegg, D. 2019. “Facebook labelled ‘digital gangsters’ by report on fake news.” The Guardian, 18 February. Accessed 1 May 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/feb/18/facebook-fake-news-investigation-report-regulation-privacy-law-dcms.
   Google Scholar
• Plantin, J., C. Lagoze, P. N. Edwards, and C. Sandvig. 2018. “Infrastructure Studies Meet Platform Studies in the age of Google and Facebook.” New Media & Society 20 (1): 293–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816661553.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posetti, J., and K. Bontcheva. 2021. “Is Facebook a Failed State?” Foreign Policy. Accessed 25 August 2021. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/05/10/facebook-zuckerberg-trump-ban-suspension-oversight-board-rights-speech-big-tech/.
   Google Scholar
• Radu, R. G. 2012. “The Monopoly of Violence in the Cyber Space: Challenges of Cyber Security.” In In Power in the 21st Century: International Security and International Political Economy in a Changing World, edited by E. Fels, J. Kremer, and K. Kronenberg, 137–150. London: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Rider, K., and D. M. Wood. 2019. “Condemned to Connection? Network Communitarianism in Mark Zuckerberg’s “Facebook Manifesto”.” New Media & Society 21 (3): 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818804772.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roguski, P. 2020. “Violations of Territorial Sovereignty in Cyberspace – An Intrusion-Based Approach.” In Governing Cyberspace – Behaviour, Power and Diplomacy, edited by D. Broeders, and B. van den Berg, 64–84. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Sadowski, J., and R. Bendor. 2019. “Selling Smartness: Corporate Narratives and the Smart City as a Sociotechnical Imaginary.” Science, Technology, & Human Values 44 (3): 540–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243918806061.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaake, M. 2021. “Big Tech is Trying to Take Governments’ Policy Role.” Financial Times, 27 January. Accessed 29 March 2021. https://www.ft.com/content/7f85a5ff-326f-490c-9873-013527c19b8f.
   Google Scholar
• Schia, N. N., and L. Gjesvik. 2017. China’s Cyber Sovereignty. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, Policy Brief.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, E., and J. Cohen. 2013. The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business. London: John Murray.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, E. 2018. “Lawmakers Seem Confused About What Facebook Does – and how to fix it.” Vox, 10 April. Accessed 1 December 2020. https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/4/10/17222062/mark-zuckerberg-testimony-graham-facebook-regulations.
   Google Scholar
• Strange, S. 1991. “Big Business and the State1.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 20 (2): 245–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298910200021501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strate, L. 1999. “The Varieties of Cyberspace: Problems in Definition and Delimitation.” Western Journal of Communication 63 (3): 382–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570319909374648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, G. 2010. Ordinary People and the Media: The Demotic Turn. London: SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. 2020. “Notice of Annual Meeting of Stockholders: Facebook Inc. – Proxy Statement Pursuant to Section 14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.” 10 April. Accessed 23 February 2021. http://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0001326801/a5bdeea6-726a-409c-8b6d-5ff86863196d.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijck, J. 2013. “Facebook and the Engineering of Connectivity.” Convergence: The International Journal of Research Into New Media Technologies 19 (2): 141–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856512457548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijck, J. 2021. “Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Visualizing Platformization and its Governance.” New Media & Society 23 (9): 2801–2819. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820940293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, J. 2018. “UK and Canada Join Forces to Summon Mark Zuckerberg for Questioning.” The Verge, 31 October. Accessed 1 April 2021. https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/31/18047302/uk-canada-joint-hearing-committee-facebook-zuckerberg-misinformation-fake-news-summons.
   Google Scholar
• Weber, M. 2019. Economy and Society: A New Translation. Translated and edited by K. Tribe. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wichowski, A. 2017. “Net States Rule the World; We Need to Recognize Their Power.” Wired, 11 April. Accessed 12 March 2021. https://www.wired.com/story/net-states-rule-the-world-we-need-to-recognize-their-power/.
   Google Scholar
• Wichowski, A. 2020. The Information Trade: How Big Tech Conquers Countries, Challenges Our Rights, and Transforms Our World. New York: HarperOne.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, K. D. 2005. “Private Actors and the Legitimacy of Governance Beyond the State.” European Consortium for Political Research. Accessed 9 May 2021. https://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/0fa1430c-fda3-465d-8cdc-8a9d8abf66e2.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank Group. n.d. “Population, total – China.” Accessed 25 February 2021. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=CN.
   Google Scholar
• Zittrain, J. 2014. “Facebook Could Decide an Election Without Anyone Ever Finding Out.” New Republic, 2 June. Accessed 13 March 2021. https://newrepublic.com/article/117878/information-fiduciary-solution-facebook-digital-gerrymandering.
   Google Scholar
• Zuboff, S. 2019. The Age of Surveillance Capitalism. London: Profile Books.
   Google Scholar
• Zuckerberg, M. 2017. Building Global Community. Facebook. Accessed 16 January 2021. https://www.facebook.com/notes/mark-zuckerberg/building-global-community/10154544292806634/.
   Google Scholar
• Zuckerberg, M. 2018. Preparing for Elections. Facebook. Accessed 16 January 2021. https://www.facebook.com/notes/mark-zuckerberg/preparing-for-elections/10156300047606634/.
   Google Scholar