REFERENCES
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- Following the convention, International Relations or IR would denote in this paper the study or the discipline whereas the practice would be designated in the lower case.
- Danziger , T.N. 1991 . Understanding the Political World 385 New York and London : Longman . By formal analysis we mean, ‘the intellectual process of trying to specify a reality that corresponds to abstract concepts and vice versa.’
- Jones , C. 1993 . “ Rethinking the Methodology of Neorealism ” . In The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism Edited by: Buzan , B. , Jones , C. and Little , R. 174 – 232 . New York : Columbia University Press . For a discussion see
- Runciman , W.G. 1990 . A Treatise on Social Theory. Volume 1. The Methodology of Social Theory Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . For a discussion relevant to this theme, see
- Ruggie , G.R. 1998 . What Makes the World Hang Together? Neo-utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge . International Organization , 52 : 855 – 885 .
- Strange , S. 1999 . The Westfailure System . Review of International Studies , 25 : 345 – 353 . For a contrasting view see, for instance,
- Dessler , D. 1999 . Constructivism within a Positivist Social Science . Review of International Studies , 25 : 123 – 137 .
- We use the concepts of perspective and paradigm as defined by Guba, E.G.; Lincoln, Y.S. Major Paradigms and Perspectives. In Handbook of Qualitative Research, Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S., Eds.; Sage: Thousand Oaks, Calf., London, New Delhi, 1994; 99–117. A paradigm is a basic set of beliefs that guide action and define the worldview of the researcher. Perspectives, in contrast, are not as solidified, or as well unified, as paradigms, although a perspective may share many elements with a paradigm, such as a common set of methodological commitments
- Knutsen , T. 1997 . A History of International Relations Theory , Second Manchester : Manchester University Press . See
- Kegley , C. 1995 . “ The Neoliberal Challenge to realist Theories of World Politics: An Introduction ” . In Controversies in International Relations Theory: Realism and the Neoliberal Challenge Edited by: Kegley , C. 1 – 24 . New York : St. Martin's Press .
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- Wendt , A. 1992 . Anarchy is What States Make of it: The Social Construction of Power Politics . International Organization , 46 : 394 expressed his view thus: ‘…self-help and power politics do not follow either logically or causally from anarchy and…if today we find ourselves in a self-help world, this is due to process, not structure.’
- Brown , S. 1992 . International Relations in a Changing Global System. Towards a Theory of the World Polity 2 Boulder : Westview Press .
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- Those who had challenged the ontological status of anarchy, according to Jervis, R. Realism in the Study of World Politics. International Organization 1998, 52, 975; seem to have been motivated by the hope for a better world more than the results of investigation.
- It should be noted that the conclusion of Milner, H. The Assumption of Anarchy in International Relations Theory: A Critique. In Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate, Baldwin, D.A.; Ed., Columbia University Press: New York, 1993; 167; seems to contradict (and hence not to logically follow from) her powerful argument in which she challenged the assumption of anarchy in international relations.
- Dessler , D. 1999 . Constructivism within a Positivist Social Science . Review of International Studies , 25 : 128 – 130 . discusses this set of logic respectively under what he called generalizing and particularizing strategies of explanation referring to the latter as the reconstructive approach.
- Jervis , R. 1998 . Realism in the Study of World Politics . International Organization , 52 : 973
- Ringmar , E. 1997 . “ Alexander Wendt: A Social Scientist Struggling with History ” . In The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? Edited by: Neumann , I.B. and Waever , O. 273 London, New York : Routledge . succinctly summed up this brand of (in our view, flawed) argument: ‘There is no essential ontological difference between, say, a molecular structure in physics and a generative structure of international politics since the effects of both can be observed.’
- In this respect we share the observation of Hanson, E. William T.R. Fox and the Study of World Politics. In The Evolution of Theory in International Politics, Rothstein, R.; Ed., Columbia University Press: New York, 1992, xiv; that ‘theories affect the world political process whether or not the particular theorist intends to do so and sometimes in ways that are not anticipated.’
- ‘In the social sciences’, observed Huer, J. The Fallacies of Social Science. A Critique of the Natural Science Model of Social Analysis; Peter Lang: New York, 1990, 68; ‘the more one ‘knows’ about a subject, the more one gets involved with the subject. The more one gets involved with the subject, the more one becomes biased about the subject, unable to render objective assessment.’
- Said , E.W. 1994 . Cuture and Imperialism 322 New York : Vantage Books .
- Jackson , W.D. 1994 . “ Thinking About International Community and Its Alternatives ” . In Community, Diversity and New World Order. Essays in Honor of Inis L. Claude Edited by: Thompson , K.W. Jr. 9 Lanham : University Press of America . Mentioned in
- Guzzini as cited in Legro, J.W. and Moravcsick, A. Is Anybody Still a Realist? International Security 1999 24, 21. Similarly, Lipson, C. International Cooperation in Economic and Security Affairs. World Politics 1984, 37, 22; went as far as to assert: ‘The idea of anarchy is, in a sense, the Rosetta stone of international relations: a heuristic device for decoding its basic grammar and syntax. But what was once a blinding insight – profound and evocative – has ossified and so become blinding in the other sense of the word – limiting and obscuring.’
- Strand , S. 1999 . Forecasting the Future: Pitfalls for Controlling for Uncertainty . Futures , 31 : 33 – 350 .
- Wendt , A. 1992 . Anarchy is What States Make of it: The Social Construction of Power Politics . International Organization , 46 : 395 Mentioned in
- Brown , S. 1992 . International Relations in a Changing Global System. Towards a Theory of the World Polity 17 Boulder : Westview Press .
- Rosenau , J.N. and Durfee , M. 1995 . Thinking Theory Thoroughly: Coherent Approaches to an Incoherent World 14 Boulder : Westview Press .
- Hobbes , T. 1991 . Leviathan Edited by: Tuck , R. 89 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 246 – 308 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . For an elaborate discussion and a slightly different interpretation see
- Locke , J. 1989 . Two Treatises on Government Edited by: Laslett , P. 88 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Wind , M. and Nicholas , G. 1997 . “ Onuf: The Rule of Anarchy ” . In The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? Edited by: Neumann , I.B. and Waever , O. 242 – 243 . London, New York : Routledge .
- Brown , S. 1992 . International Relations in a Changing Global System. Towards a Theory of the World Polity 20 – 21 . Boulder : Westview Press .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 106 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 246 – 312 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Bull , H. 1977 . The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics 46 London : Macmillan .
- Wind , M. and Nicholas , G. 1997 . “ Onuf: The Rule of Anarchy ” . In The Future of International Relations Masters in the Making? Edited by: Neumann , I.B. and Waever , O. 236 London, New York : Routledge . One such analyst is Nicholas Onuf. See
- By the three patterns of thought, Bull, H. The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics Macmillan: London, 1977, 23; was referring to the Hobbesian or realist tradition, which views international politics as a state of war; the Kanitian or universalitic tradition; and the Grotian or internationalist tradition, which views international politics as taking place within international society
- Little , R. 1999 . Historiography and International Relations . Review of International Studies , 25 : 293 Cited in
- Bull , H. 1981 . Hobbes and the International Anarchy . Social Research , 48 : 719
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- Little , R. 1993 . “ Rethinking System Continuity and Transformation ” . In The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism Edited by: Buzan , B. , Jones , C. and Little , R. 137 New York : Columbia University Press .
- is one of them: ‘[t]he logic is different in the two cases because the nature of the units in the two systems is different. In the state of nature, the logic of the system is seen by Hobbes to generate a situation of absolute and unbearable insecurity. Each member of the system is seen to live in a constant fear of being killed by another member. The critical point about Hobbes's state of nature is that even limited cooperation is ruled out.’ We are of the view that Hobbes can be regarded as a proponent of the realist school of international politics only to the extent that the notion of ‘security dilemma’ and ‘the natural rights of states to self-preservation’ in the absence of a central power in the conduct of inter-state politics has been very much central to the study and practice of international politics in the 20th century. On this point also see
- Milner , H. 1993 . “ The Assumption of Anarchy in International Relations Theory: A Critique ” . In Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate Edited by: Baldwin , D.A. 143 – 169 . New York : Columbia University Press .
- Bull , H. 1981 . Hobbes and the International Anarchy . Social Research , 48 : 725
- Milner , H. 1993 . “ The Assumption of Anarchy in International Relations Theory: A Critique ” . In Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate Edited by: Baldwin , D.A. 153 – 162 . New York : Columbia University Press . For an excellent critique of domestic/international politics dichotomy see
- Waltz , K. 1979 . Theory of International Politics 102 Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley .
- Dahl , R. 1999 . The Shifting Boundaries of Democratic Governments . Social Research , 66 : 928 has brought to our attention, for instance, that there is a growing proliferation of an alarmingly powerful and ‘undemocratic’ international governments, such as the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which he defined as systems of decision-making by political and bureaucratic elite that operate with a very high degree of autonomy, within limits set by charters, treaties or other international agreements.
- Suhr , M. and Robert , O. 1997 . “ Keohane: A Contemporary Classic ” . In The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? Edited by: Neumann , I.B. and Waever , O. 105 London, New York : Routledge .
- Nicholson , M. 1996 . Causes and Consequences in International Relations. A Conceptual Study 70 – 104 . London, New York : Pinter . For a good discussion of this subject see
- Wind , M. and Nicholas , G. 1997 . “ Onuf: The Rule of Anarchy ” . In The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? Edited by: Neumann , I.B. and Waever , O. 244 London, New York : Routledge . has reminded us that the idea of linking order to the fear of punishment in strict causal terms originates from Galileo and classical physics, and later was reinforced by Newton's law of gravity, where the mechanistic prediction of movements was related directly to the invocation of force
- Waltz , K. 1979 . Theory of International Politics 103 – 104 . Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 251 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 251 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Clark , I. 1989 . The Hierarchy of States: Reform and Resistance in the International Order 3 – 4 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Rosenau , J.N. 1995 . Security in a Turbulent World . Current Affairs , : 50 – 51 .
- In an otherwise cogent analysis of the assumption of anarchy in IR, Milner, H. The Assumption of Anarchy in International Relations Theory: A Critique. In Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate, Baldwin, D.A., Ed., Columbia University Press: New York, 1993; 152; states: ‘Legitimacy, more than institutions or laws, is what distinguishes domestic and international politics. Lack of legitimacy seems in the end to be what many international relations scholars have in mind when they talk about anarchy.’
- Bull , H. 1981 . Hobbes and the International Anarchy . Social Research , 48 : 736 did in fact also write about a society of states (or international society) which he defined as a group of states which, conscious of certain common interests and common values, from a society in the sense that they conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another, and share in the working of common institutions
- Rosenau , J.N. and Durfee , M. 1995 . Thinking Theory Thoroughly: Coherent Approaches to an Incoherent World 14 Boulder : Westview Press .
- Little , R. 1993 . “ Rethinking System Continuity and Transformation ” . In The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism Edited by: Buzan , B. , Jones , C. and Little , R. 139 New York : Columbia University Press .
- Clark , I. 1989 . The Hierarchy of States: Reform and Resistance in the International Order 2 – 3 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Bull , H. 1981 . Hobbes and the International Anarchy . Social Research , 48 : 737
- Little , R. 1993 . “ Rethinking System Continuity and Transformation ” . In The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism Edited by: Buzan , B. , Jones , C. and Little , R. 152 New York : Columbia University Press . For a discussion along this line see
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 209 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Wendt , A. 1995 . Constructing International Politics . International Security , 20 : 73 The other elements of social structure are material resources and practices. See
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 108 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . further elaborated the notion thus: ‘Contemporary states have been interacting for dozens, even hundreds of years, during which they have accumulated considerable knowledge about each other's interests. They know something about each other's grievances and ambitions, and thus about whether they are status quo or revisionist states. They know something about each other's styles of dispute resolution. And they even know something about the condition under which these conditions might change.’
- Clark , I. 1989 . The Hierarchy of States: Reform and Resistance in the International Order 2 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . The definition is adapted from
- Nye , J. 1992 . What New World Order? . Foreign Affairs , : 82
- Suhr , M. and Robert , O. 1997 . “ Keohane: A Contemporary Classic ” . In The Future of International Relations Masters in the Making? Edited by: Neumann , I.B. and Waever , O. 105 London, New York : Routledge . Attribute to Robert Keohane in
- Clark , I. 1989 . The Hierarchy of States: Reform and Resistance in the International Order 2 – 3 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . identifies a few types of hierarchy in the international system: …hierarchy is commonly assigned in terms of politico-strategic power, yielding the traditional groupings of Great Powers, medium powers and small powers. It may equally be described in economic terms, yielding the stratification into first, second, third and fourth worlds. Outside a statist perspective, it may be analyzed in terms of centers or cores, semi-peripheries and peripheries. Its key theme is that disparities in capability are reflected, more or less formally, in the decision-making of the society of states.’
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 286 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- This may be due to what Wendt, A. Social Theory of International Politics; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge 1999; 131 has called ‘ontological security’ defined as the human predisposition for ‘relatively stable expectations about the world around them Along the need for physical security, this pushes human beings in a conservative homeostatic direction, and to seek out recognition of their standing from society.’
- Dumont , L. Homo Hierachicus Chicago : University of Chicago Press . For a detailed discussion of the concept see
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- Held , D. and A. , McGrew . 1998 . The End of the Old Order? Globalization and the Prospects of World Order . International Affairs , 24 : 222
- In fact some analysts like Ayoob, M. The Third World in a Changing Strategic Context. In Building a New Global Order: Emerging Trends in International Security, Deiwit, D., Haglund, D. and Kirton J. Eds.; Oxford University Press: Toronto 88–89 have argued: ‘conflict in the Third World during the post-War decades was actively encouraged by superpower policies largely aimed at testing one another's political will and power projection capabilities in areas of the globe peripheral to the vital concerns of the superpowers themselves.’
- It should be noted that the short-lived conflict between India and Pakistan is in essence the spillover of a long-standing domestic conflict rather than a self-contained inter-state conflict. In the cases of Eritrea-Ethiopia conflict, neither side openly challenged the ‘sovereignty’ of the other. The source of conflict instead pertained to the different interpretation of the physical confines of that sovereignty
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- Holsti , K.J. 1996 . The State, War and the State of War Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Gurr , T. 1999 . State Failure Task Force: Phase Two Findings . Environmental Change & Security Project Report , 5 : 49 – 72 .
- Wendt , A. 1995 . Constructing International Politics . International Security , 20 : 76
- Bull , H. 1977 . The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics 42 London : Macmillan . For a more elaborate statement of a similar idea see
- According to Waltz, K. Theory of International Politics; Addison-Wesley: Reading, Massachusetts, 1979; 103; ‘To discover qualitative differences between internal and external affairs one must look for a criterion other than the occurrence of violence. The distinction between international and national realms of politics is not found in the use or the non-use of force but in their different structures.’
- Waltz , K. 1979 . Theory of International Politics 102 Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley .
- Waltz , K. 1979 . Theory of International Politics 14 Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley .
- Piaget , J. Structuralism London : Routledge, Kegan Paul . (Tran. by Maschler, C)
- DeVires , R. 1994 . “ A Critique of Political Realism ” . In Community, Diversity and New World Order. Essays in Honor of Inis L. Claude Jr. Edited by: Thompson , K.W. 237 Lanham : University Press of America .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 222 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Waltz , K. 1979 . Theory of International Politics 105 Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley .
- San Francisco Chronicle, February 10, 2000
- Rosenau , J.N. and Durfee , M. 1995 . Thinking Theory Thoroughly: Coherent Approaches to an Incoherent World 336 Boulder : Westview Press .
- Dahl , R. 1999 . The Shifting Boundaries of Democratic Governments . Social Research , 66 : 921 – 923 .
- Fukuyama , F. 1992 . The End of History and the Last Man London : Penguin Books .
- Wendt , A. 1999 . Social Theory of International Politics 222 – 223 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
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- Barnaby , F. 1991 . “ The United Nations Security Council and New World Order ” . In Building A More Democratic UN Edited by: Barnaby , F. London : Frank . For a useful discussion in this regard see
- Barnaby , F. 1991 . “ The United Nations Security Council and New World Order ” . In Building A More Democratic UN Edited by: Barnaby , F. 58 London : Frank . See
- Rosenau , J.N. 1995 . Security in a Turbulent World . Current Affairs , : 194 – 195 .
- Rosenau , J.N. 1995 . Security in a Turbulent World . Current Affairs , : 194 – 195 .
- Nye , J. 1992 . What New World Order? . Foreign Affairs , : 85