A review of clinical trials with fluoroquinolones with an emphasis on new agents

Bibliography

• DOMAGK G: Ein Beitrag zur chemotherapie der bakteriellen infection. Deutsche Medizinische Wochen-schrift (1935) 61:250–253.
   Google Scholar
• ITO A, HIRAI K, INOUE M et al: In vitro antibacterial activity of AM-715, a new nalidixic acid analog. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1980) 17 (2):103–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GOLD HS, MOELLERING RC, JR: Antimicrobial-drug resistance. N Engl. J. Merl. (1996) 335:1445–1453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Relevant comprehensive review.
   Google Scholar
• GOOTZ TD, BRIGHTY KE: Fluoroquinolone antibacte-rials: SAR, mechanism of action, resistance and clinical aspects. Med. Res. Rev. (1996) 16:433–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BALL P, FERNALD A, TILLOTSON G: Therapeutic advances of new fluoroquinolones. Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs (1998) 7(5):761–783.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ••Relevant comprehensive review.
   Google Scholar
• KUNIN CM: Urinary tract infections in females. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1994) 18:1–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HANSMAN D, BULLEN MM: A resistant pneumococcus. Lancet (1967) 2:264–265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• APPELBAUM PC, BHAMJEE A, SCRAGG JN et al.: Strepto-coccus pneumoniae resistant to penicillin and chloramphenicol. Lancet (1977) 2:995–997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JACOBS MR, KOORNHOF HJ, ROBINS-BROWN RM et al.: Emergence of multiply resistant pneumococci. N Engl. J. Med. (1978) 299:735–740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EVANS W, HANSMAN D: Tetracycline-resistant pneumococcus. Lancet (1963) 1:451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FRANCIS RS, MAY JR, SPICER CC: Influence of daily penicillin, tetracycline, erythromycin and sulphamethoxypyridazine on exacerbations of bronchitis: a report to the Research Committee of the British Tuberculosis Association. Br. Med. J. (1964) 1:728–732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KISLAK JVV: Type 6 pneumococcus resistant to erythro-mycin and lincomycin. N Engl. J. Med. (1967) 276:852.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ASENSI F, PEREZ-TAMARIT D, OTERO MC et al.: Imipenem-cilastatin therapy in a child with meningitis caused by a multiply resistant pneumo-coccus. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (1989) 8:895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRUNEBERG RN, FELMINGHAM D: Results of the Alexander project: a continuing, multicenter study of the antimicrobial susceptibility of community-acquired lower respiratory tract bacterial pathogens. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (1996) 25:169–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CRITCHLEY IA, THORNSBERRY C, PIAZZA G, VAUGHAN D, SAHM DF: Activity of moxifloxacin against resistant and susceptible populations of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis isolated in the United States. 39th Intel-sci-ence Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Francisco, CA, USA (26–29 September 1999). Abstract 369.
   Google Scholar
• JACOBS MR, BAJAKSOUZIAN S, ZILLES A, UN G,PANKUCH GA, APPELBAUM PC: Susceptibilities of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae to 10 oral antimicrobial agents based on pharmacodynamic parameters: 1997 US Surveillance Study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1 9 9 9) 43:1901–1908.
   Google Scholar
• BLONDEAU JM, TILLOTSON G: The application of moxifloxacin and other compounds to the formula for rational antimicrobial therapy (PRAT): respiratory tract infections. 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy. July 3–8, 1999 Birmingham, UK. Abstract P478. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1999) 44:145.
   Google Scholar
• FELMINGHAM D, ROBBINS M, DENCER C, SALMAN H, MATHIAS I, RID GWAY G: In vitro activity of gemifloxa-cin against Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Legionella pneumophila and Chlamydia spp. 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy. July 4–7, 1999, Birmingham, UK Abstract P408. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1999)44.
   Google Scholar
• DOERN GV, BRUEGGEMANN A, HOLLEY HP, JR, RAUCHAM: Antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae recovered from out-patients in the United States during the winter months of 1994 to 1995: results of a 30-center national surveillance study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1 9 9 6) 40:1208–1213.
   Google Scholar
• SIMOR AE, LOUIE M, LOW DE & THE CANADIAN BACTERIAL SURVEILLANCE NETWORK: Canadian national survey of prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:2190–2193, .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BLONDEAU JM: Expanded activity and utility of the new fluoroquinolones: a review. Clin. Ther. (1999) 21:3–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Relevant comprehensive review.
   Google Scholar
• BAUERNFEIND A: Comparison of the antibacterial activities of the quinolones Bay12-8039, gatifloxacin (AM 1155), trovafloxacin, clinafloxacin, levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1997) 40:639–651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BLONDEAU JM, LASKOWSKI R, BJARNASON J, STEWART C Comparative in vitro activity of gatifloxacin, grepafloxaci, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin and trovafloxacin against 4151 Gram-negative and Gram-positive organisms. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• TOMIZAWA H, TATEDA K, MIYAZAKI S et al.: Antibacte-rial of AM-1155 against penicillin-resistant Strepto-coccus pneumoniae. J. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 41:103–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JONES RN, PFALLER MA, DOERN GV: Comparative antimicrobial activity of trovafloxacin tested against 3049 Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from the 1997-1998 respiratory infection season. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (1998) 32:119–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DONG Y, ZHAO X, DUMOGALA J, DRLICA K: Effect of fluoroquinolone concentration on selection of resistant mutants of Mycobacterium bovis BCG and Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1999) 43:1756–1758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRON NJ, VASSOS AB, WEBB CL, MANT TG, DORR MB: The tolerance and pharmacokinetics of clinafloxacin (CI-960) in healthy subjects. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1996) 38:1023–1029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NAKASHIMA M, UEMATSU T, KOSUGE K et al: Single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of AM-1155, a new 6-fluoro-8-methoxy quinolone, in humans. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:2635–2640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHILD J, WISE R andREWS JM: Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of the new fluoroquinolone grepafloxacin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:513–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JOHNSON JH, WISE R andREWS JM et al.: Pharmacoki-netics and inflammatory fluid penetration of sparfloxacin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1992) 36:2444–2446.
   Google Scholar
• PIDDOCK LJV, JOHNSON M, RICCI V et al.: Activities of new fluoroquinolones against fluoroquinolone-resistant pathogens of the lower respiratory tract. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 42:2956–2960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YAMAMOTO T, KUSAJIMA H, HOSAKA M et al.: Uptake and intracellular activity of AM-1155 in phagocytic cells. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1996) 40:2756–2759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARTIN SJ, MEYER JM, CHUCK SK, JUNG R, MESSICK CR, PENDLAND SL: Levofloxacin and sparfloxacin: new quinolone antibiotics. Ann. Pharmacol. (19 9 8) 32:320–336.
   Google Scholar
• BARTLETT JG, BREIMAN RF, MANDELL LA et al.: Community-acquired pneumonia in adults: guidelines for management. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1998) 26:811–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARRIE TJ: Community-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1994) 18:501–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEROY 0, SANTRÉ C, BEUSCART C et al.: A five-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on prognosis in patients admitted to an intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med. (1995) 21:24–31.
   Google Scholar
• FINE MJ, SMITH MA, CARSON CA et al.: Prognosis and outcomes of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. JAMA (1996) 275:134–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FASS RJ: Aetiology and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: an historical perspec-tive. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1993) 32 (Suppl. A):17–27.
   Google Scholar
• MARRIE TJ, FINE MJ, COLEY C: Ambulatory patients with community-acquired pneumonia: the frequency of atypical agents and clinical course. Am. J. Med. (1996) 101:503–515.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DONOWITZ GR, MANDELL GL: Acute pneumonia. In: Principles and Practices of Infectious Diseases, 4th Editon. Mandell GR, Douglas RG, Bennett JE (Eds.), Churchill Livingstone, New York, USA (1995):619–637.
   Google Scholar
• BARRY AL, PFALLER MA, FUCHS PC et al: In vitro activi-ties of 12 orally administered antimicrobial agents against four species of bacterial respiratory pathogens from US medical centers in 1992 and 1993. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1994) 38:2419–2425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DOERN GV, PFALLER MA, KUGLER K et al.: Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among respiratory tract isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in North America: 1997 results from the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1998) 27:764–770.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JONES RN, PFALLER MA, DOERN GV, THE SENTRY PARTICIPANTS GROUP: Antimicrobial activity of gatifloxacin tested against 1,676 Gram-positive cocci resistant to ciprofloxacin: A multi-center organism sample from North and South America. In :Program and Abstracts of the 38th Intel-science Conference on Antimi-crobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Diego, California, USA (24–27 September 1998) Abstract E190.
   Google Scholar
• HOFMANN J, CETRON MS, FARLEY MM et al.: The prevalence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumo-niae in Atlanta. N Engl. J. Med. (1995) 333:481–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DOERN GV, THE ALEXANDER PROJECT COLLABORATIVE GROUP: Antimicrobial resistance among lower respiratory tract isolates of Haemophilus influenzae: results of a 1992–1993 Western Europe and USA collaborative surveillance study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1996) 38(Suppl. A):59–59.
   Google Scholar
• CONSENSUS STATEMENT: Therapeutic recommenda-tions for community-acquired pneumonia and acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Hosp. Med. (1997) 33 (Suppl.):26–27.
   Google Scholar
• ODLAND BA, JONES RN, VERHOEF J et al.: Antimicrobial activity of gatifloxacin (AM-1155) and four other fluoroquinolones tested against 2,284 recent clinical strains of Strepotococcus pneumoniae from Europe, Latin America, Canada and the United States. (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• APPELBAUM PC: Emerging resistance to antimicrobial agents in Gram-positive bacteria. Pneumococci. Drugs (1996) 51 (Suppl. 0:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• BERRY V, THORBURN CE, KNOTT SJ et al.: Bacterio-logical efficacies of three macrolides compared with those of amoxicillin-clavlanate against Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 42:3193–3199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CRAIG WA: Antimicrobial resistance issues of thefuture. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (1996) 25:213–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GARAU J: The growing problem of nosocomial bacterial resistance. An epidemiological perspective with emphasis on the fluoroquinolones. Clin. Drug Invest. (1998) 15 (Suppl. 0:1–8.
   Google Scholar
• KLUGMAN KP, CAPPER T: Concentration-dependent killing of antibiotic-resistant pneumococci by the methoxyquinolone moxifloxacin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1997) 40:797–802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin.
   Google Scholar
• DALHOFF A: In vitro activities of quinolones. Exp. Opin.Invest. Drugs (1999) 8(2):123–137.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• EDNIE LM, JACOBS MR, APPELBAUM PC: Activities ofgatifloxacin compared to those of seven other agents against anaerobic organisms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 42:2459–2462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin.
   Google Scholar
• ISHIDA K, KAKU M, IRIFUNE K et al.: In-vitro and in-vivoactivity of a new quinolone AM-1155 against Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1994) 34:875–883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'DOHERTY B, DUTCHMAN DA, PETTIT R et al.: Randomized, double-blind, comparative study of grepafloxacin and amoxycillin in the treatment of patients with community- acquired pneumonia. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1997) 40(Suppl. A):73–81.
   Google Scholar
• ERNST ME, ERNST EJ, KLEPSER ME: Levofloxacin andtrovafloxacin: the next generation of fluoroqui-nolones? Am. J. Health-Syst Pharm. (1997) 54:2669-2584. 1997.
   Google Scholar
• TREMOLIERES F, DE KOCK F, PLUCK N et al.: Trovafloxa-cin versus high-dose amoxicillin (1 gram three times daily) in the treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. Eur. j Clin. Microbic)]. Infect. Dis. (1998) 17:447–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FILE TM JR, SEGRETI J, DUNBAR L et al.: Multicenter,randomized study comparing the efficacy and safety of iv. and/or oral levofloxacin versus ceftriaxone and/orcefuroxime axetil in treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1997) 41:1965–1972.
   Google Scholar
• MANDELL L, WILLIAMS HOPKINS D, HOPKINS S: Efficacyof trovafloxacin in patients with community acquired pneumonia due to penicillin susceptible and penicillin resistant S. pneumoniae. 37th Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1997)377 Abstract LM–71.
   Google Scholar
• FOGARTY C, GROSSMAN C, WILLIAMS J, HAVERSTOCK D,CHURCH D FOR THE COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA STUDY GROUP: Efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin vs clarithromycin for community-acquired pneumonia. Infect. Med. (1999) 16.
   Google Scholar
• SULLIVAN JG, MCELROY AD, HONSINGER RW et al.: Clinical activity of gatifloxacin vs levofloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. (1999) Abstract.
   Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin adn moxifloxacin.
   Google Scholar
• BALL P, MAKE B: Acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. An international comparison. Chest (1998) 113 (Suppl.):199S–204S.
   Google Scholar
• ••Relevant comprehensive reviews.
   Google Scholar
• GROSSMAN RF: How do we achieve cost-effective options in lower respiratory tract infection therapy? Chest (1998) 113 (Suppl.):205S–210S.
   Google Scholar
• REYNOLDS HY: Chronic bronchitis and acute infectious exacerbations. In: Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (4th Edition).. Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (Eds.), Churchill Livingston, New York, USA (1995):608–612.
   Google Scholar
• BASRAN GS, JOSEPH J, ABBAS AMA et al.: Treatment ofacute exacerbations of chronic obstructive airways disease-a comparison of amoxycillin and ciprofloxa-cM. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1990) 26(Suppl. F):19–24.
   Google Scholar
• CHODOSH S: Treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: state of the art. Am. J. Med. (1991) 91 (Suppl. 6A):875-92S.
   Google Scholar
• ALDONS PM: A comparison of clarithromycin with ampicillin in the treatment of out-patients with acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1991) 27 (Suppl. A):101–108.
   Google Scholar
• CHOW AW, HALL CB, KLEIN JO et al: Evaluation of new anti-infective drugs for the treatment of respiratory tract infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1992) 15 (Suppl. 1):S62–588.
   Google Scholar
• ELLER J, EDE A, SCHABERG R et al.: Infective exacerba-tions of chronic bronchitis. Relation between bacteriologic etiology and lung function. Chest (1998) 122:1542–1548.
   Google Scholar
• MIRAVITLLES M, ESPINOSA C, FERNANDEZ-LASO E, MARTOS JA, MALDONADO JA, GALLEGO M: Relationship between bacterial flora in sputum and functional impairment in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Study Group of Bacterial Infection in COPD. Chest (1999) 116(1):40–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CELLI BR, SNIDER GL, HEFNER J et al.: ATS statement: standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995) 152(5):S77–S120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BALTER MS, RYLAND RH, LOW DE et al: Recommenda-tions on the management of chronic bronchitis: a practical guide for Canadian physicians. Can. Med. Assoc. J. (1994) 151 (Suppl. 10):8–23.
   Google Scholar
• ANTHONISEN NOR, MANFREDA J, WARREN CPW et al: Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Intern. Med. (1987) 106:196–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BENSCH GW, KLAUSTERMEYER WB, MCCARTY J et al: Efficacy and safety of once-daily ceftibuten vs. twice-daily ciprofloxacin in the treatment of acute exacerba-tion of chronic bronchitis. Infect. Dis. Clin. Pract (1995) 4 (Suppl. 2):S80–S87.
   Google Scholar
• WILSON R, KUBIN R, BALLIN I et al.: Five day moxifloxa-cM therapy compared with 7 day clarithromycin therapy for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1999) 44:501–513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BALL P: Infective pathogenesis and outcomes inchronic bronchitis. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. (1996) 2:181–185.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DEABATE CA, MCIVOR RA, DOLMANN A eta].: A random-ized, double-blind multicentre comparative study of gatifloxacin vs. cefuroxime axetil in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. (1999) (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• HATTAN J, HUGHES M, RAYMOND CH: Management of bacterial urinary tract infections in adults. Ann. Pharmacother. (1994) 28:1264–1272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NATIONAL NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS SURVEILLANCE (NNIS) SYSTEM REPORT: Data summary from October 1986-April 1998. (1998).
   Google Scholar
• RUBIN RH, SHAPIRO ED andRIOLE VT et al: Evaluation ofnew anti-infective drugs for the treatment of urinary tract infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1992) 15 (Suppl. 1):S216–227.
   Google Scholar
• JONES RN, KUGLER KC, PFALLER MA, WUSOKUR PL, THE SENTRY SURVEILLANCE GROUP, NORTH AMERICA: Characteristics of pathogens causing urinary tract infections in hospitals: results from the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program, 1997. Microbic)]. Infect. Dis. (1999) 33:1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JOHNSON JR, STAMM WE: Urinary tract infections in women: diagnosis and treatment. Ann. Internal. Med. (1989) 111:906–917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUMP RC: Urinary tract infection in women. Current role of single-dose therapy. J. Reproduc. Med. (1990) 35:785–791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PILOT MANUSCRIPT: The management of acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women: results from a multicenter Phase II/III trial comparing two dosage regimens of gatifloxacin to ciprofloxacin. (1999) (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• RICHARD GA, KLIMBERG IN, FOWLER CL et al.: Levofloxacin versus ciprofloxacin versus lomefloxa-cM in acute pyelonephritis. Urology (1998) 52:515–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NABER KG: Fluoroquinolones in urinary tract infections. Proper and improper use. Drugs (1996) 52 (Suppl. 2): 27–33.
   Google Scholar
• TALAN DA, STAMM WE, REUNING-SCHERER J, FAULKNER L, CHURCH D, THE PYELONEPHRITIS INVESTIGATORS GROUP: Treatment of acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis (AUP): a randomized double-blind trial comparing 7 vs. 14 day therapy. 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Francisco, USA (24–27 September 1998) Abstract L83.
   Google Scholar
• MCCUE JD: Rationale for the use of oral fluoroqui-nolones as empiric treatment of nursing home infections. Arch. Fam. Med. (1994) 3:157–164.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ACAR JF, GOLDSTEIN FW: Trends in bacterial resistance to fluoroquinolones. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1997) 24\(Suppl. 1):567–S73.
   Google Scholar
• LANGTRY HD, LAMB HM: Levofloxacin. Its use in infections of the respiratory tract, skin, soft tissues and urinary tract. Drugs (1998) 56:487–515.
   Google Scholar
• COX CC, MARBURY TC, PITTMAN WG et al.: A multicenter comparison of gatifloxacin (GAT) 400 mg QD vs. ciprofloxacin (CIP) 500 mg BID in the treatment of complicated urinary tract infection (UTI) and pyelonephritis. 39th Intel-science Conference on Antimi-crobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Francisco, CA (26–29 September 1999) Abstract 0612.
   Google Scholar
• HOOPER DC, WOLFSON JS: Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to quinolones. In: Quinolone Antimicrobial Agents. 2fi1 Edition. Hooper DC, Woffson JS (Eds.) American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC, USA (1993):97–118.
   Google Scholar
• ITO H, YOSHIDA H, BOGAKI-SHONAI M etal.: Quinolone resistance mutations in the DNA gyrase gyrA and gyrB genes of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1994) 38:2014–2023.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DRLICA K: Mechanism of fluoroquinolone action. Curr.Opin. Microbiol. (1999) 2(5):504–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZHAO X, XU C, DOMAGALA J, DRLICA K: DNA topoisomerase targets of the fluoroquinolones: a strategy for avoiding bacterial resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. ScL USA (1997) 94:13991–13996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin.
   Google Scholar
• ZHAO X, WANG J-Y, CHEN X et al: Killing of Staphylo-coccus aureus by C-8-methoxy fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1998) 42:956–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin.
   Google Scholar
• ZHAO X (1999).
   Google Scholar
• CORMICAN MG, JONES RN: Cross-resistance analysis for clinafloxacin compared with ciprofloxacin, fleroxacin, ofloxacin and sparfloxacin using a predictor panel of ciprofloxacin-resistant bacteria. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1995) 36:431–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DIPERSIO JR, JONES RN, BARRETT T et al.: Fluoroquinolone-resistant Moraxella catarrhalis in a patient with pneumonia: report from the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program (1998). Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (1998) 32:131–135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEGUCHI T, KAWAMURA T, YASUDA M et al: In vivo selection of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains with enhanced quinolone resistance during fluoroqui-nolone treatment of urinary tract infections. Antimi-crob. Agents Chemother. (1997) 41:1609–1611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NGUYEN T-H, TELLIER G, COPPOLA G et al.: A random-ized, double-blind, multicenter, comparative Phase III trial of oral gatifloxacin versus clarithromycin in the treatment of community acquired pneumonia. (1999) (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin.
   Google Scholar
• DEABATE CA, FOGARTY C, GROOMS E et al.: Efficacy and safety of gatifloxacin in the treatment of acute exacer-bation of chronic bronchitis. 36th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. (1998) (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• •Some studies relevant to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin. GRUSKY (Abstract) DOMAGALA JM: Structure-activity and structure side effect relationships for the quinolone antibacterials. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1994) 33:685–706.
   Google Scholar
• BALL P, MANDELL L, NIKI Y, TILLOTSON G: Comparative tolerability of the newer fuoroquinolone antibacte-rials. Drug Saf (1999) 21(5):407–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRYSKIER A, CHANTOT J-F: Classification and structure-activity relationships of fluoroquinolones. Drugs (1995) 49 (Suppl. 2):16–28.
   Google Scholar
• ANTONIADOU A, GIANNAKOU P, BOUROUSI M, GIAMARELLOU H. In vitro activity of gemifloxacin against 322 Gram-negative nosocomial clinical isolates. 39th Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #1496.
   Google Scholar
• RITTENHOUSE S, MCCLOSKEY L, NICONOVICH N, BROSKEY J, BUTLER D, COLEMAN K: Antibacterial activity of gemifloxacin and 15 comparator compounds against 895 Gram-negative clinical isolates. 39th Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agent and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #2249.
   Google Scholar
• DESHPANDE LM, ERWIN ME, BIEDENBACH DJ, JOHNSON DM, THE QUALITY CONTROL STUDY GROUP: Develop-ment of in vitro testing methods and quality control guidelines for gemifloxacin (SB-265805), an investiga-tional fluoroquinolone. 39th Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #0344.
   Google Scholar
• GREKA P, SOULI M, ATHANASIOU K et al.: Coparative in vitro activity of gemifloxacin (SB-265805) against 373 Gram-positive recent clinical isolates. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #1495.
   Google Scholar
• DUFFY LB, CRABB D, SEARCEY K, KEMPF MC: Compara-tive activity of gemifloxacin and new quinolones, macrolides, tetracycline and clindamycin against Mycoplasma species. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #1500.
   Google Scholar
• DUBOIS J, ST-PIERRE C: In vitro susceptibility and post-antibiotic effect of gemifloxacin against Legionella spp. 39th Intel-science Conference on Antimi-crobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA, (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #2310.
   Google Scholar
• ROBLIN PM, REZNIK T, KUTLIN A, HAMMERSCHLAG MR: In vitro activity of gemifloxacin (SB-265805) against recent clinical isolates of Chlamydia pneumoniae. 39th Intel-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #2312.
   Google Scholar
• FELMINGHAM D, WASHINGTON J, THE ALEXANDER PROJECT GROUP: Trends in the antimicrobial suscepti-bility of bacterial respiratory tract pathogens - findings of the Alexander Project 1992–1996. J. Chemother. (1999) 11 (Suppl. 0:5–21.
   Google Scholar
• JOHNSON RH, LEVINE S, TRAUB SL et al.: Sequential intravenous/oral ciprofloxacin compared with parenteral ceftriaxone in the treatment of hospital-ized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Infect. Dis. Gun. Prac. (1996) 5:265–272.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HABIB MP, GEZON J, DOLMANN A et al.: An open-label multicenter noncomparative Phase II/III study of oral gatifloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia (CAP). (1998) (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• TOPKIS S, SWARZ H, BREISCH SA et al.: Efficacy and safety of grepafloxacin 600 mg daily for 10 days in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Ther. (1997) 19:975–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEABATE CA, MYERS D, HENRY D et al.: Efficacy and tolerability of once-daily grepafloxacin compared with clarithromycin in the treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Drug Invest. (1999) 17:21–23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHODOSH S, LAKSHMINARAYAN S, SWARZ H et al.: Efficacy and safety of a 10-day course of 400 or 600 milligrams of grepafloxacin once daily for treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: comparison with a 10-day course of 500 milligrams of ciprofloxacin twice daily. Antimicrob. Agents Chem other. (1998) 42:114–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LANGAN CE, CRANFIELD R, BREISCH S et al.: Random-ized, double-blind study of grepafloxacin versus amoxycillin in patients with acute bacterial exacerba-tions of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimcrob. Chemother. (1997) 40(Suppl. A):63–72.
   Google Scholar
• LEOPHANTE (1998).
   Google Scholar
• O'DOHERTY B, DUTCHMAN DA, PETTIT R et al.: Treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: comparison of trovafloxacin and amoxicillin in a multicentre, double-blind, double-dummy study. Trovafloxacin Bronchitis Study Group. Eur. j Clin. Microbic)]. Infect. Dis. (1998) 17:441–446.
   Google Scholar
• HEYSTEK MJ, TELLARINI M, SCHMITZ H, KRASEMANN C, THE PID STUDY GROUP: Efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin (MFX) vs. ciprofloxacin plus doxycy-cline plus metronidazole for the treatment of uncomplicated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy Birmingham, UK, (July 1999).
   Google Scholar
• HOEFFKEN G, MEYER HP, WINTER J, VERHOEF L, THE CAP 1 STUDY GROUP: Efficacy and safety of moxifloxa-cin (MFX) vs. clarithromcyin (CLR) for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy Birmingham, UK, (July 1999).
   Google Scholar
• LEAL DEL ROSAL P, MARTINEZ R, FABIAN G et al.: Efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin vs. cephalexin in the treatment of mild to moderate uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections (uSSSO. 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy Birmingham, UK (July 1999).
   Google Scholar
• PARISH LC, HEYD A, HAVERSTOCK D, CHURCH D: Efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin versus cephalexin in the treatment of mild to moderate acute uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections. 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy Birmingham, UK (July 1999).
   Google Scholar
• PATEL T, WILLIAMS J, HAVERSTOCK D, CHURCH D: Efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy Birmingham, UK (July 1999).
   Google Scholar
• PETITPRETZ P, BRANCO-PIRES J, DOSEDEL J, RICO-MENDEZ G, ARVIS P: Moxifloxacin versus amoxicillin in the treatment of community-acquired, suspected pneumococcal pneumonia: a multinational, double-blind randomized study. 9th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Berlin, Germany (March 1999) Abstract #P0207.
   Google Scholar
• LOPEZ-SISNIEGA JA, BELALCAZAR V, MASCAREMO A et Gatifloxacin in the treatment of acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in Mexico. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #0166.
   Google Scholar
• FOGARTY C, MCADOO M, PASTER RZ, AUDET MC, BREEN J, MACKO, A: Comparison of once daily gatifloxacin (GAT), 400 mg PO for 10 days with twice daily clarithromycin (CLA), 500 mg PO for 14 days, in patients with acute maxillary sinusitis: a multicenter Phase III study. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimi-crobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #0169.
   Google Scholar
• TAARSHIS G, MISKIN BM, JONES TM et al.: Oral gatifloxa-cin (GAT), 400 mg QD, vs. oral levoflovacin (LEV), 500 mg QD, in the treatment of uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections (SSTO. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #1075.
   Google Scholar
• STONER BP, DOUGLAS JM, MARTIN DH et al.: Single-dose gatifloxacin (400 mg or 600 mg) vs. single-dose ofloxacin (400 mg) in the treatment of uncomplicated gonococcal infections. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #1744.
   Google Scholar
• DOWELL ME, MAYER H, ANDERSON A, FOGARTY CM: A randomized, double-blind, multicenter, comparative study of gatifloxacin (GAT) 400 mg IV and PO versus ceftriaxone ± erythromycin (CTX±ERY) in treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) requiring hospitalization. 39th Interscience Conference on Antimi-crobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #2241.
   Google Scholar
• RAMIREZ J, NGUYEN TH, TELLIER G et al.: One daily 400-mg oral gatifloxacin (GAT) vs. twice daily 500-mg oral clarithromycin (CLA) in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). 39th Intersci-ence Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA (September 26–29 1999) Abstract #2242.
   Google Scholar
• GOTFRIED M, SULLIVAN JG, MAYER H, ANDERSON A, PLOUFFE J: A randomized, double-blind, multicenter, comparative study of gatifloxacin (GAT) vs. levofloxa-cin (LEV) in treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA ( September 26–29 1999) Abstract #2243.
   Google Scholar
• BURKE T, CATALINA V, MARIANO H et al: Comparison of moxifloxacin and cefuroxime axetil in the treatment of acute maxillary sinusitis. Clinical Ther. (1999) 21:1664–1677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PFAU A, SACKS TG: Single dose quinolone treatment in acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women. J. Urol. (1993) 149(3):532–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IRAVANI A, TICE AD, MCCARTY J et al.: Short-course ciprofloxacin treatment of acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women. The minimum effective dose. The Urinary Tract Infection Study Group. Arch. Intern. Med. (1995) 155(5):485–494.
   Google Scholar
• BREEN J, SKIBUK K, GRISELA D et al.: Safety and tolerability of oral gatifloxacin. 39th Intel-science Confer-ence on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy San Francisco, CA ( September 26–29 1999) Abstract #200.
   Google Scholar
• Moxifloxacin Package Insert, Bayer Corp., West Haven, CT. USA (1999).
   Google Scholar