New Developments and Challenges in Antibody-Based Therapies for the Respiratory Syncytial Virus

References

• Afonso CL, Amarasinghe GK, Bányai K, et al. Taxonomy of the order mononegavirales: update 2016. Arch Virol. 2016;161:2351–2360. doi:10.1007/s00705-016-2880-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amarasinghe GK, Ayllón MA, Bào Y, et al. Taxonomy of the order mononegavirales: update 2019. Arch Virol. 2019;164:1967–1980. doi:10.1007/s00705-019-04247-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi T, Denouel A, Tietjen AK, et al. Global disease burden estimates of respiratory syncytial virus–associated acute respiratory infection in older adults in 2015: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis. 2020;222:S577–S583. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiz059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Respiratory syncytial virus surveillance. 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Yoon JG, Noh JY, Choi WS, et al. Clinical characteristics and disease burden of respiratory syncytial virus infection among hospitalized adults. Sci Rep. 2020;10:12106. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69017-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carbonell-Estrany X, Bont L, Doering G, Gouyon J-B, Lanari M. Clinical relevance of prevention of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection in preterm infants born between 33 and 35 weeks gestational age. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;27:891–899. doi:10.1007/s10096-008-0520-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi T, McAllister DA, O’Brien KL, et al. Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children in 2015: a systematic review and modelling study. Lancet. 2017;390:946–958. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30938-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohmwald K, Espinoza J, Rey-Jurado E, et al. Human respiratory syncytial virus: infection and pathology. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;37:522–537. doi:10.1055/s-0036-1584799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile Vigilancia de Virus Respiratorios. Available from: https://www.ispch.gob.cl/virusrespiratorios/. Accessed April 03, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Stein RT, Bont LJ, Zar H, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus hospitalization and mortality: systematic review and meta‐analysis. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017;52:556–569. doi:10.1002/ppul.23570
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaw PS, Hua L, Cunningham S, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus-associated acute lower respiratory infections in children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis. 2020;222:S620–S627. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiz492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gentile A, Lucion MF, Del Valle Juárez M, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus in preterm infants: 19 years of active epidemiological surveillance in a children’s hospital. Arch Argent Pediatr. 2020;118. doi:10.5546/aap.2020.eng.386
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azzari C, Baraldi E, Bonanni P, et al. Epidemiology and prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infections in children in Italy. Ital J Pediatr. 2021;47:198. doi:10.1186/s13052-021-01148-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simões EAF, Bont L, Manzoni P, et al. Past, present and future approaches to the prevention and treatment of respiratory syncytial virus infection in children. Infect Dis Ther. 2018;7:87–120. doi:10.1007/s40121-018-0188-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coultas JA, Smyth R, Openshaw PJ. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV): a scourge from infancy to old age. Thorax. 2019;74:986–993. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2018-212212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson J, Do LAH, Wurzel D, et al. Severe respiratory syncytial virus disease in preterm infants: a case of innate immaturity. Thorax. 2021;76:942–950. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garegnani L, Styrmisdóttir L, Roson Rodriguez P, Escobar Liquitay CM, Esteban I, Franco JV. Palivizumab for preventing severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;2021. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013757.pub2
   Google Scholar
• Collins PL, Chanock RM, Murphy BR. Respiratory Syncytial. In: Fields BN, Howley PM, Griffin DE, et al., editors. Fields Virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001:1443–1485.
   Google Scholar
• Bohmwald K, Andrade CA, Kalergis AM. Contribution of pro-inflammatory molecules induced by respiratory virus infections to neurological disorders. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14:340. doi:10.3390/ph14040340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrade CA, Kalergis AM, Bohmwald K. Potential neurocognitive symptoms due to respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pathogens. 2021;11:47. doi:10.3390/pathogens11010047
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohmwald K, Gálvez NMS, Ríos M, Kalergis AM. Neurologic alterations due to respiratory virus infections. Front Cell Neurosci. 2018;12. doi:10.3389/fncel.2018.00386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peña M, Jara C, Flores JC, et al. Severe respiratory disease caused by human respiratory syncytial virus impairs language learning during early infancy. Sci Rep. 2020;10:22356. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79140-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saravanos GL, King CL, Deng L, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus–associated neurologic complications in children: a systematic review and aggregated case series. J Pediatr. 2021;239:39–49.e9. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.06.045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millichap JJ, Wainwright MS. Neurological complications of respiratory syncytial virus infection: case series and review of literature. J Child Neurol. 2009;24:1499–1503. doi:10.1177/0883073808331362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera CA, Gómez RS, Díaz RA, et al. Novel therapies and vaccines against the human respiratory syncytial virus. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2015;24:1613–1630. doi:10.1517/13543784.2015.1099626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mejias A, Rodríguez-Fernández R, Oliva S, Peeples ME, Ramilo O. The journey to a respiratory syncytial virus vaccine. Annals Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2020;125:36–46. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2020.03.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang K, Wu H. Prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection: from vaccine to antibody. Microbiol Spectr. 2014;2. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.AID-0014-2014
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langley JM. Vaccine prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in older adults: the work continues. J Infect Dis. 2017;216:1334–1336. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramanian S. Palivizumab. Drugs. 1999;58:312–313. doi:10.2165/00003495-199958020-00010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luna MS, Manzoni P, Paes B, et al. Expert consensus on palivizumab use for respiratory syncytial virus in developed countries. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2020;33:35–44. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2018.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Checchia P. Identification and management of severe respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2008;65:S7–S12. doi:10.2146/ajhp080439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saso A, Kampmann B. Vaccine responses in newborns. Semin Immunopathol. 2017;39:627–642. doi:10.1007/s00281-017-0654-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• León B. Understanding the development of th2 cell-driven allergic airway disease in early life. Front Allergy. 2023;3. doi:10.3389/falgy.2022.1080153
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russell CD, Unger SA, Walton M, Schwarze J. The human immune response to respiratory syncytial virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017;30:481–502. doi:10.1128/CMR.00090-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lukacs NW, Moore ML, Rudd BD, et al. Differential immune responses and pulmonary pathophysiology are induced by two different strains of respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Pathol. 2006;169:977–986. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2006.051055
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borchers AT, Chang C, Gershwin ME, Gershwin LJ. Respiratory syncytial virus—a comprehensive review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2013;45:331–379. doi:10.1007/s12016-013-8368-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waris ME, Tsou C, Erdman DD, Zaki SR, Anderson LJ. Respiratory synctial virus infection in BALB/c mice previously immunized with formalin-inactivated virus induces enhanced pulmonary inflammatory response with a predominant Th2-like cytokine pattern. J Virol. 1996;70:2852–2860. doi:10.1128/jvi.70.5.2852-2860.1996
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moghaddam A, Olszewska W, Wang B, et al. A potential molecular mechanism for hypersensitivity caused by formalin-inactivated vaccines. Nat Med. 2006;12:905–907. doi:10.1038/nm1456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prince GA, Curtis SJ, Yim KC, Porter DD. Vaccine-enhanced respiratory syncytial virus disease in cotton rats following immunization with lot 100 or a newly prepared reference vaccine. J General Virol. 2001;82:2881–2888. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-82-12-2881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HW, Canchola JG, Brandt CD, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine12. Am J Epidemiol. 1969;89:422–434. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120955
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polack FP, Alvarez-Paggi D, Libster R, et al. Fatal enhanced respiratory syncytial virus disease in toddlers. Sci Transl Med. 2021;13(616). doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abj7843
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rey-Jurado E, Kalergis A. Immunological features of respiratory syncytial virus-caused pneumonia—implications for vaccine design. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18:556. doi:10.3390/ijms18030556
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retamal-Díaz A, Covián C, Pacheco GA, et al. Contribution of resident memory CD8+ T cells to protective immunity against respiratory syncytial virus and their impact on vaccine design. Pathogens. 2019;8(3):147. doi:10.3390/pathogens8030147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker Y. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) evades the human adaptive immune system by skewing the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance toward increased levels of Th2 cytokines and IgE, markers of allergy—a review. Virus Genes. 2006;33:235–252. doi:10.1007/s11262-006-0064-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan IU, Ahmad F, Zhang S, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus F and G protein core fragments fused to HBsAg-binding protein (SBP) induce a Th1-dominant immune response without vaccine-enhanced disease. Int Immunol. 2019;31:199–209. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxy078
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Fits L, Bolder R, Heemskerk-van der Meer M, et al. Adenovector 26 encoded prefusion conformation stabilized RSV-F protein induces long-lasting th1-biased immunity in neonatal mice. NPJ Vaccines. 2020;5:49. doi:10.1038/s41541-020-0200-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Haren SD, Pedersen GK, Kumar A, et al. CAF08 adjuvant enables single dose protection against respiratory syncytial virus infection in murine newborns. Nat Commun. 2022;13:4234. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-31709-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng Y, Bian L, Zhao H, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus F subunit vaccine with AS02 adjuvant elicits balanced, robust humoral and cellular immunity in BALB/c mice. Front Immunol. 2020;11. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.526965
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riffault S, Meyer G, Deplanche M, et al. A new subunit vaccine based on nucleoprotein nanoparticles confers partial clinical and virological protection in calves against bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Vaccine. 2010;28:3722–3734. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King AM, Stott EJ, Langer SJ, Young KK, Ball LA, Wertz GW. Recombinant vaccinia viruses carrying the N gene of human respiratory syncytial virus: studies of gene expression in cell culture and immune response in mice. J Virol. 1987;61:2885–2890. doi:10.1128/jvi.61.9.2885-2890.1987
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas LH, Wyld SG, Wertz GW, et al. Recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing the F, G or N, but not the M2, protein of bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) induce resistance to BRSV challenge in the calf and protect against the development of pneumonic lesions. J General Virol. 1997;78:3195–3206. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-78-12-3195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bangham CR, Openshaw PJ, Ball LA, King AM, Wertz GW, Askonas BA. Human and murine cytotoxic t cells specific to respiratory syncytial virus recognize the viral nucleoprotein (N), but not the major glycoprotein (G), expressed by vaccinia virus recombinants. J Immunol. 1986;137:3973–3977. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.137.12.3973
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boxus M, Tignon M, Roels S, et al. DNA immunization with plasmids encoding fusion and nucleocapsid proteins of bovine respiratory syncytial virus induces a strong cell-mediated immunity and protects calves against challenge. J Virol. 2007;81:6879–6889. doi:10.1128/JVI.00502-07
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughan K, Rhodes GH, Gershwin LJ. DNA immunization against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in infant rhesus monkeys. Vaccine. 2005;23:2928–2942. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.10.046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bueno SM, González PA, Cautivo KM, et al. Protective T cell immunity against respiratory syncytial virus is efficiently induced by recombinant BCG. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2008;105:20822–20827. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806244105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz FE, Guerra-Maupome M, McDonald PO, Rivera-Pérez D, Kalergis AM, McGill JL. A recombinant BCG vaccine is safe and immunogenic in neonatal calves and reduces the clinical disease caused by the respiratory syncytial virus. Front Immunol. 2021;12. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.664212
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abarca K, Rey-Jurado E, Muñoz-Durango N, et al. Safety and immunogenicity evaluation of recombinant BCG vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase I clinical trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2020;27:100517. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100517
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Céspedes PF, Rey-Jurado E, Espinoza JA, et al. A single, low dose of a CGMP recombinant BCG vaccine elicits protective T cell immunity against the human respiratory syncytial virus infection and prevents lung pathology in mice. Vaccine. 2017;35:757–766. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.12.048
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindell DM, Morris SB, White MP, et al. A novel inactivated intranasal respiratory syncytial virus vaccine promotes viral clearance without Th2 associated vaccine-enhanced disease. PLoS One. 2011;6:e21823. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021823
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roux X, Dubuquoy C, Durand G, et al. Sub-nucleocapsid nanoparticles: a nasal vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus. PLoS One. 2008;3:e1766. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001766
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan E, Lawrence SJ, Meyer TPH, et al. Broad antibody and cellular immune response from a phase 2 clinical trial with a novel multivalent poxvirus-based respiratory syncytial virus vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2021;223:1062–1072. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaa460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland EJ, Karron RA, Muresan P, et al. Live respiratory syncytial virus attenuated by M2-2 deletion and stabilized temperature sensitivity mutation 1030s is a promising vaccine candidate in children. J Infect Dis. 2020;221:534–543. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiz603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchholz UJ, Cunningham CK, Muresan P, et al. Live respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine candidate containing stabilized temperature-sensitivity mutations is highly attenuated in RSV-seronegative infants and children. J Infect Dis. 2018;217:1338–1346. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiy066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland EJ, Karron RA, Muresan P, et al. Live-attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate with deletion of RNA synthesis regulatory protein M2-2 is highly immunogenic in children. J Infect Dis. 2018;217:1347–1355. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiy040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez RS, Guisle-Marsollier I, Bohmwald K, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. Respiratory syncytial virus: pathology, therapeutic drugs and prophylaxis. Immunol Lett. 2014;162:237–247. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2014.09.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalergis AM, Soto JA, Gálvez NMS, et al. Pharmacological management of human respiratory syncytial virus infection. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2020;21:2293–2303. doi:10.1080/14656566.2020.1806821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IMpact-RSV Study Group. Palivizumab, a humanized respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibody, reduces hospitalization from respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants. Pediatrics. 1998;102:531–537. doi:10.1542/peds.102.3.531
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ventre K, Randolph A. Ribavirin for respiratory syncytial virus infection of the lower respiratory tract in infants and young children. In: Ventre K, editor. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Conrad DA, Christenson JC, WANER JL, Marks MI. Aerosolized ribavirin treatment of respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants hospitalized during an epidemic. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1987;6:152–158. doi:10.1097/00006454-198702000-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson S, Oliver C, Prince GA, et al. Development of a humanized monoclonal antibody (MEDI‐493) with potent in vitro and in vivo activity against respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:1215–1224. doi:10.1086/514115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris JA, Blount RE, Savage RE. Recovery of cytopathogenic agent from chimpanzees with goryza. Exp Biol Med. 1956;92:544–549. doi:10.3181/00379727-92-22538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• González PA, Bueno SM, Carreño LJ, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Respiratory syncytial virus infection and immunity. Rev Med Virol. 2012;22:230–244. doi:10.1002/rmv.1704
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang E, Tang N. Immunoglobulin for preventing respiratory syncytial virus infection. In: Wang E, editor. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Englund JA. Prevention strategies for respiratory syncytial virus: passive and active immunization. J Pediatr. 1999;135:38–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu H, Pfarr DS, Losonsky GA, Kiener PA. Immunoprophylaxis of RSV infection: advancing from RSV-IGIV to palivizumab and motavizumab. Human Antibody Therap Viral Dis. 2008;20:103–123.
   Google Scholar
• Meissner HC, Rennels MB, Long SS, Pickering LK. Immunoprophylaxis with RespiGam. Pediatrics. 2004;113:629. doi:10.1542/peds.113.3.629-a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mac S, Sumner A, Duchesne-Belanger S, Stirling R, Tunis M, Sander B. Cost-effectiveness of palivizumab for respiratory syncytial virus: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2019;143. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-4064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders SL, Agwan S, Hassan M, van Driel ML, Del Mar CB. Immunoglobulin treatment for hospitalised infants and young children with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009417.pub2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homaira N, Rawlinson W, Snelling TL, Jaffe A. Effectiveness of palivizumab in preventing RSV hospitalization in high risk children: a real-world perspective. Int J Pediatr. 2014;2014:1–13. doi:10.1155/2014/571609
   Google Scholar
• van Mechelen L, Luytjes W, de Haan CAM, Wicht O. RSV neutralization by palivizumab, but not by monoclonal antibodies targeting other epitopes, is augmented by Fc gamma receptors. Antiviral Res. 2016;132:1–5. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.05.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mochizuki H, Kusuda S, Okada K, et al. Palivizumab prophylaxis in preterm infants and subsequent recurrent wheezing. six-year follow-up study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;196:29–38. doi:10.1164/rccm.201609-1812OC
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resch B. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants – an update on palivizumab prophylaxis. Open Microbiol J. 2014;8:71–77. doi:10.2174/1874285801408010071
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saez-Llorens X, Moreno MT, Ramilo O, Sanchez PJ, Top FH, Connor EM. Safety and pharmacokinetics of palivizumab therapy in children hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:707–712. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000133165.85909.08
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soto JA, Gálvez NMS, Pacheco GA, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. Antibody development for preventing the human respiratory syncytial virus pathology. Mol Med. 2020;26:35. doi:10.1186/s10020-020-00162-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu H, Pfarr DS, Johnson S, et al. Development of motavizumab, an ultra-potent antibody for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in the upper and lower respiratory tract. J Mol Biol. 2007;368:652–665. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2007.02.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin MP, Khan AA, Esser MT, et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of MEDI8897, the respiratory syncytial virus prefusion f-targeting monoclonal antibody with an extended half-life, in healthy adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017;61. doi:10.1128/AAC.01714-16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliprantis AO, Wolford D, Caro L, et al. A phase 1 randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial to assess the safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of a respiratory syncytial virus neutralizing monoclonal antibody MK‐1654 in healthy adults. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev. 2021;10:556–566. doi:10.1002/cpdd.883
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mejías A, Chávez-Bueno S, Raynor MB, et al. Motavizumab, a neutralizing anti-respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) monoclonal antibody significantly modifies the local and systemic cytokine responses induced by RSV in the mouse model. Virol J. 2007;4:109. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-4-109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abarca K, Jung E, Fernández P, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and immunogenicity of motavizumab, a humanized, enhanced-potency monoclonal antibody for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in at-risk children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:267–272. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31818ffd03
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez RS, Mora JE, Cortés CM, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus detection in cells and clinical samples by using three new monoclonal antibodies. J Med Virol. 2014;86:1256–1266. doi:10.1002/jmv.23807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbie GJ, Criste R, Dall’Acqua WF, et al. A novel investigational Fc-modified humanized monoclonal antibody, motavizumab-YTE, has an extended half-life in healthy adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:6147–6153. doi:10.1128/AAC.01285-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cingoz O. Motavizumab. MAbs. 2009;1:439–442. doi:10.4161/mabs.1.5.9496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carbonell-Estrany X, Simões EAF, Dagan R, et al. Motavizumab for prophylaxis of respiratory syncytial virus in high-risk children: a noninferiority trial. Pediatrics. 2010;125:e35–e51. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin MP, Yuan Y, Takas T, et al. Single-dose nirsevimab for prevention of RSV in preterm infants. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:415–425. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1913556
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keam SJ. Nirsevimab: first approval. Drugs. 2023;83:181–187. doi:10.1007/s40265-022-01829-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson L, Jadhao S, Paden C, Tong S. Functional features of the respiratory syncytial virus G protein. Viruses. 2021;13:1214. doi:10.3390/v13071214
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan JS, Chen M, Leung S, et al. Structure of RSV fusion glycoprotein trimer bound to a prefusion-specific neutralizing antibody. Science. 2013;340:1113–1117. doi:10.1126/science.1234914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collarini EJ, Lee FE-H, Foord O, et al. Potent high-affinity antibodies for treatment and prophylaxis of respiratory syncytial virus derived from b cells of infected patients. J Immunol. 2009;183:6338–6345. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0901373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tripp RA, Power UF, Openshaw PJM, Kauvar LM. Respiratory syncytial virus: targeting the G protein provides a new approach for an old problem. J Virol. 2018;92. doi:10.1128/JVI.01302-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynes LM, Caidi H, Radu GU, et al. Therapeutic monoclonal antibody treatment targeting respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G protein mediates viral clearance and reduces the pathogenesis of RSV infection in BALB/c mice. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:439–447. doi:10.1086/600108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira AP, Simabuco FM, Tamura RE, et al. Human respiratory syncytial virus N, P and M protein interactions in HEK-293T cells. Virus Res. 2013;177:108–112. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2013.07.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simabuco FM, Carromeu C, Farinha-Arcieri LE, Tamura RE, Ventura AM. Production of polyclonal antibodies against the human respiratory syncytial virus nucleoprotein and phosphoprotein expressed in Escherichia coli. Protein Expr Purif. 2007;53:209–215. doi:10.1016/j.pep.2006.12.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner GJ. Building better monoclonal antibody-based therapeutics. Nat Rev Cancer. 2015;15:361–370. doi:10.1038/nrc3930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu R-M, Hwang Y-C, Liu I-J, et al. Development of therapeutic antibodies for the treatment of diseases. J Biomed Sci. 2020;27:1. doi:10.1186/s12929-019-0592-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr R, Green CA, Sande CJ, Drysdale SB. Respiratory syncytial virus: diagnosis, prevention and management. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2019;6:204993611986579. doi:10.1177/2049936119865798
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feltes TF, Sondheimer HM, Tulloh RMR, et al. A randomized controlled trial of motavizumab versus palivizumab for the prophylaxis of serious respiratory syncytial virus disease in children with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease. Pediatr Res. 2011;70:186–191. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318220a553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales T, Bergamasco A, Cristarella T, et al. Effectiveness and safety of palivizumab for the prevention of serious lower respiratory tract infection caused by respiratory syncytial virus: a systematic review. Am J Perinatol. 2022. doi:10.1055/a-1990-2633
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Checchia PA, Nalysnyk L, Fernandes AW, et al. Mortality and morbidity among infants at high risk for severe respiratory syncytial virus infection receiving prophylaxis with palivizumab: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2011;12:580–588. doi:10.1097/PCC.0b013e3182070990
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates JT, Keefer CJ, Slaughter JC, Kulp DW, Schief WR, Crowe JE. Escape from neutralization by the respiratory syncytial virus-specific neutralizing monoclonal antibody palivizumab is driven by changes in on-rate of binding to the fusion protein. Virology. 2014;454–455:139–144. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2014.02.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen TN, Power UF, Robert A, et al. The respiratory syncytial virus G protein conserved domain induces a persistent and protective antibody response in rodents. PLoS One. 2012;7:e34331. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergeron HC, Murray J, Nuñez Castrejon AM, DuBois RM, Tripp RA. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G protein vaccines with central conserved domain mutations induce CX3C-CX3CR1 blocking antibodies. Viruses. 2021;13:352. doi:10.3390/v13020352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amitai N, Stafler P, Blau H, et al. Palivizumab following extremely premature birth does not affect pulmonary outcomes in adolescence. Chest. 2020;158:660–669. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2020.02.075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prais D, Kaplan E, Klinger G, et al. Short- and long-term pulmonary outcome of palivizumab in children born extremely prematurely. Chest. 2016;149:801–808. doi:10.1378/chest.15-0328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goulet DR, Atkins WM. Considerations for the design of antibody-based therapeutics. J Pharm Sci. 2020;109:74–103. doi:10.1016/j.xphs.2019.05.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiatt A, Bohorova N, Bohorov O, et al. Glycan variants of a respiratory syncytial virus antibody with enhanced effector function and in vivo efficacy. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014;111:5992–5997. doi:10.1073/pnas.1402458111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajapaksa AE, Do LAH, Suryawijaya Ong D, et al. Pulmonary deposition of radionucleotide-labeled palivizumab: proof-of-concept study. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11. doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.01291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Céspedes PF, Bueno SM, Ramírez BA, et al. Surface expression of the HRSV nucleoprotein impairs immunological synapse formation with T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014;111. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400760111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang S-Y, Weiner G. Complement and cellular cytotoxicity in antibody therapy of cancer. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2008;8:759–768. doi:10.1517/14712598.8.6.759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbeil S, Seguin C, Trudel M. Involvement of the complement system in the protection of mice from challenge with respiratory syncytial virus long strain following passive immunization with monoclonal antibody 18A2B2. Vaccine. 1996;14:521–525. doi:10.1016/0264-410X(95)00222-M
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonsignori M, Pollara J, Moody MA, et al. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity-mediating antibodies from an HIV-1 vaccine efficacy trial target multiple epitopes and preferentially use the VH1 gene family. J Virol. 2012;86:11521–11532. doi:10.1128/JVI.01023-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta N, LeGoff J, Chamat S, et al. Affinity-purified respiratory syncytial virus antibodies from intravenous immunoglobulin exert potent antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. PLoS One. 2013;8:e69390. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung S, Lin YL, Reed C, et al. Characterization of in vitro antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity activity of therapeutic antibodies — impact of effector cells. J Immunol Methods. 2014;407:63–75. doi:10.1016/j.jim.2014.03.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsao L-C, Crosby EJ, Trotter TN, et al. Trastuzumab/pertuzumab combination therapy stimulates antitumor responses through complement-dependent cytotoxicity and phagocytosis. JCI Insight. 2022;7. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.155636
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clynes RA, Towers TL, Presta LG, Ravetch JV. Inhibitory Fc receptors modulate in vivo cytoxicity against tumor targets. Nat Med. 2000;6:443–446. doi:10.1038/74704
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clynes R, Takechi Y, Moroi Y, Houghton A, Ravetch JV. Fc receptors are required in passive and active immunity to melanoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1998;95:652–656. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.2.652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan KR, Ong EZ, Mok DZ, Ooi EE. Fc receptors and their influence on efficacy of therapeutic antibodies for treatment of viral diseases. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2015;13:1351–1360. doi:10.1586/14787210.2015.1079127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madhi SA, Polack FP, Piedra PA, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus vaccination during pregnancy and effects in infants. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:426–439. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1908380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simões EAF, Center KJ, Tita ATN, et al. Prefusion F protein–based respiratory syncytial virus immunization in pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1615–1626. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2106062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammitt LL, Dagan R, Yuan Y, et al. Nirsevimab for prevention of RSV in healthy late-preterm and term infants. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:837–846. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2110275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simões EAF, Forleo-Neto E, Geba GP, et al. Suptavumab for the prevention of medically attended respiratory syncytial virus infection in preterm infants. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e4400–e4408. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa951
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. Regeneron to discontinue development of suptavumab for respiratory syncytial virus. 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Weltzin R, Hsu SA, Mittler ES, Georgakopoulos K, Monath TP. Intranasal monoclonal immunoglobulin a against respiratory syncytial virus protects against upper and lower respiratory tract infections in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994;38:2785–2791. doi:10.1128/AAC.38.12.2785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weltzin R, Traina-Dorge V, Soike K, et al. Intranasal monoclonal IgA antibody to respiratory syncytial virus protects rhesus monkeys against upper and lower respiratory tract infection. J Infect Dis. 1996;174:256–261. doi:10.1093/infdis/174.2.256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham S, Piedra PA, Martinon-Torres F, et al. Nebulised ALX-0171 for respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection in hospitalised children: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, Phase 2b trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9:21–32. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30320-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broadbent L, Parke HG, Ferguson LJ, et al. Comparative therapeutic potential of ALX-0171 and palivizumab against respiratory syncytial virus clinical isolate infection of well-differentiated primary pediatric bronchial epithelial cell cultures. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020;64. doi:10.1128/AAC.02034-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larios Mora A, Detalle L, Gallup JM, et al. Delivery of ALX-0171 by inhalation greatly reduces respiratory syncytial virus disease in newborn lambs. MAbs. 2018;10:778–795. doi:10.1080/19420862.2018.1470727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palomo C, Mas V, Detalle L, et al. Trivalency of a nanobody specific for the human respiratory syncytial virus fusion glycoprotein drastically enhances virus neutralization and impacts escape mutant selection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60:6498–6509. doi:10.1128/AAC.00842-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott R, de Landazuri MO, Gardner PS, Owen JJ. Human antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity against target cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Clin Exp Immunol. 1977;28:19–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tawar RG, Duquerroy S, Vonrhein C, et al. Crystal structure of a nucleocapsid-like nucleoprotein-RNA complex of respiratory syncytial virus. Science. 2009;326:1279–1283. doi:10.1126/science.1177634
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLellan K, Loney C, Yeo RP, Bhella D. The 24-angstrom structure of respiratory syncytial virus nucleocapsid protein-RNA decameric rings. J Virol. 2007;81:9519–9524. doi:10.1128/JVI.00526-07
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Omari K, Dhaliwal B, Ren J, et al. Structures of respiratory syncytial virus nucleocapsid protein from two crystal forms: details of potential packing interactions in the native helical form. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun. 2011;67:1179–1183. doi:10.1107/S1744309111029228
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson SM, McNally BA, Ioannidis I, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus uses CX3CR1 as a receptor on primary human airway epithelial cultures. PLoS Pathog. 2015;11:e1005318. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1005318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeong K-I, Piepenhagen PA, Kishko M, et al. CX3CR1 is expressed in differentiated human ciliated airway cells and co-localizes with respiratory syncytial virus on Cilia in a G protein-dependent manner. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0130517. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130517
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson CS, Chu C-Y, Wang Q, et al. CX3CR1 as a respiratory syncytial virus receptor in pediatric human lung. Pediatr Res. 2020;87:862–867. doi:10.1038/s41390-019-0677-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson CS, Chirkova T, Slaunwhite CG, et al. CX3CR1 engagement by respiratory syncytial virus leads to induction of nucleolin and dysregulation of cilium-related genes. J Virol. 2021;95. doi:10.1128/JVI.00095-21
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caidi H, Miao C, Thornburg NJ, Tripp RA, Anderson LJ, Haynes LM. Anti-respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G monoclonal antibodies reduce lung inflammation and viral lung titers when delivered therapeutically in a BALB/c mouse model. Antiviral Res. 2018;154:149–157. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.04.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes C, Wilkerson S, Bibb K, Schuschke L, Guest A. Effectiveness of RSV-IVIG in premature infants: success in the home. Pediatrics. 1999;103(3):698. doi:10.1542/peds.103.3.698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soto JA, Galvez NMS, Rivera DB, et al. From animal studies into clinical trials: the relevance of animal models to develop vaccines and therapies to reduce disease severity and prevent HRSV infection. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2022;17:1237–1259. doi:10.1080/17460441.2022.2123468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MedImmune SYNAGIS^® (PALIVIZUMAB) for Intramuscular Administration. Gaithersburg; 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Fedechkin SO, George NL, Wolff JT, Kauvar LM, DuBois RM. Structures of respiratory syncytial virus G antigen bound to broadly neutralizing antibodies. Sci Immunol. 2018;3. doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.aar3534
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar