The Global Health Threat of Monkeypox Virus: Understanding Its Biology, Transmission, and Potential Therapeutic Interventions

References

• Sklenovská N, Van Ranst M. Emergence of monkeypox as the most important orthopoxvirus infection in humans. Front Public Health. 2018;6:241. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker S, Buller RM. A review of experimental and natural infections of animals with monkeypox virus between 1958 and 2012. Future Virol. 2013;8(2):129–157. doi:10.2217/fvl.12.130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter K, Malani PN. What is monkeypox? JAMA. 2022;328(2):222. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.10259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16(2):e0010141. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0010141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ejaz H, Junaid K, Younas S, et al. Emergence and dissemination of monkeypox, an intimidating global public health problem. J Infect Public Health. 2022;15(10):1156–1165. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2022.09.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed KD, Melski JW, Graham MB, et al. The detection of monkeypox in humans in the western hemisphere. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(4):342–350. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa032299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurenson-Schafer H, Sklenovská N, Hoxha A, et al. Description of the first global outbreak of mpox: an analysis of global surveillance data. Lancet Glob Health. 2023;11(7):e1012–e1023. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00198-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2022–23 Mpox (Monkeypox) Outbreak: global Trends. Available from: https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/mpx_global/. Accessed December 14, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Harapan H, Ophinni Y, Megawati D, et al. Monkeypox: a comprehensive review. Viruses. 2022;14(10):2155. doi:10.3390/v14102155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shchelkunov SN. Orthopoxvirus genes that mediate disease virulence and host tropism. Adv Virol. 2012;2012:524743. doi:10.1155/2012/524743
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qudus MS, Cui X, Tian M, et al. The prospective outcome of the monkeypox outbreak in 2022 and characterization of monkeypox disease immunobiology. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2023;13:1196699. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2023.1196699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucena-Neto FD, Falcão LFM, Vieira-Junior AS, et al. Monkeypox virus immune evasion and eye manifestation: beyond eyelid implications. Viruses. 2023;15(12):2301. doi:10.3390/v15122301
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses. 2020;12(11):1257. doi:10.3390/v12111257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar N, Acharya A, Gendelman HE, Byrareddy SN. The 2022 outbreak and the pathobiology of the monkeypox virus. J Autoimmu. 2022;131:102855. doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2022.102855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt FI, Bleck CK, Mercer J. Poxvirus host cell entry. Curr Opin Virol. 2012;2(1):20–27. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Poxvirus. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/clinicians/clinical-recognition.html. Accessed 14 December 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, et al. Human monkeypox: epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2019;33(4):1027–1043. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2019.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Poxviruses and the immune system: implications for monkeypox virus. Int Immunopharmacol. 2022;113(Pt A):109364. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109364
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zandi M, Shafaati M, Hosseini F. Mechanisms of immune evasion of monkeypox virus. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1106247. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1106247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum F-M, Torres-Ruesta A, Tay MZ, et al. Monkeypox: disease epidemiology, host immunity and clinical interventions. Nat Rev Immunol. 2022;22(10):597–613. doi:10.1038/s41577-022-00775-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suraweera CD, Hinds MG, Kvansakul M. Poxviral strategies to overcome host cell apoptosis. Pathogens. 2020;10(1):6. doi:10.3390/pathogens10010006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elsayed S, Bondy L, Hanage WP. Monkeypox virus infections in humans. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2022;35(4):e0009222. doi:10.1128/cmr.00092-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo Q, Han J. Preparedness for a monkeypox outbreak. Infectious Medicine. 2022;1(2):124–134. doi:10.1016/j.imj.2022.07.001
   Google Scholar
• Sah R, Abdelaal A, Reda A, et al. Monkeypox and its possible sexual transmission: where are we now with its evidence? Pathogens. 2022;11(8):924. doi:10.3390/pathogens11080924
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajudeen YA, Oladipo HJ, Muili AO, Ikebuaso JG. Monkeypox: a review of a zoonotic disease of global public health concern. Health Promot Perspect. 2023;13(1):1–9. doi:10.34172/hpp.2023.01
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H, Zhang H, Ding K, et al. The evolving epidemiology of monkeypox virus. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2022;68:1–12. doi:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2022.10.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellwanger JH, Chies JAB. Zoonotic spillover: understanding basic aspects for better prevention. Genet Mol Biol. 2021;44(Suppl 1):e20200355. doi:10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2020-0355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagadesh S, Zhao C, Mulchandani R, Van Boeckel TP. Mapping global bushmeat activities to improve zoonotic spillover surveillance by using geospatial modeling. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(4):742–750. doi:10.3201/eid2904.221022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patiño LH, Guerra S, Muñoz M, et al. Phylogenetic landscape of Monkeypox Virus (MPV) during the early outbreak in New York City, 2022. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2023;12(1):e2192830. doi:10.1080/22221751.2023.2192830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryer J, Freeman EE, Rosenbach M. Monkeypox emerges on a global scale: a historical review and dermatologic primer. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2022;87(5):1069–1074. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2022.07.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan D, Nazareth J, Sze S, et al. Transmission of monkeypox/mpox virus: a narrative review of environmental, viral, host, and population factors in relation to the 2022 international outbreak. J Med Virol. 2023;95(2):e28534. doi:10.1002/jmv.28534
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saied AA, Metwally AA, Choudhary OP, Choudhary OP. Monkeypox: an extra burden on global health. Int J Surg. 2022;104:106745. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2022.106745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saied AA, Dhawan M, Metwally AA, Fahrni ML, Choudhary P, Choudhary OP. Disease history, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and therapeutics for human monkeypox disease: a comprehensive review. Vaccines. 2022;10(12):2091. doi:10.3390/vaccines10122091
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC. Update: multistate outbreak of monkeypox--Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52(27):642–646.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, et al. Two cases of monkeypox imported to the United Kingdom, September 2018. Euro Surveill. 2018;23(38). doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.38.1800509
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, et al. Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(8):1153–1162. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00228-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christodoulidou MM, Mabbott NA. Efficacy of smallpox vaccines against Mpox infections in humans. Immunother Adv. 2023;3(1). doi:10.1093/immadv/ltad020
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheema AY, Ogedegbe OJ, Munir M, Alugba G, Ojo TK. Monkeypox: a review of clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Cureus. 2022;14:7. doi:10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2020-0355
   Google Scholar
• Rizk JG, Lippi G, Henry BM, Forthal DN, Rizk Y. Prevention and treatment of monkeypox. Drugs. 2022;82(9):957–963. doi:10.1007/s40265-022-01742-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdelaal A, Reda A, Lashin BI, et al. Preventing the next pandemic: is live vaccine efficacious against monkeypox, or is there a need for killed virus and mRNA vaccines? Vaccines. 2022;10(9):1419. doi:10.3390/vaccines10091419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watarkar S, Upadhyay P, Ghosh S, et al. Vaccines for monkeypox disease and challenges in its production and distribution: a lesson from COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Surg. 2023;109(3):536–538. doi:10.1097/JS9.0000000000000016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenner J, Cameron F, Empig C, Jobes DV, Gurwith M. LC16m8: an attenuated smallpox vaccine. Vaccine. 2006;24(47–48):7009–7022. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sánchez-Sampedro L, Perdiguero B, Mejías-Pérez E, García-Arriaza J, Di Pilato M, Esteban M. The evolution of poxvirus vaccines. Viruses. 2015;7(4):1726–1803. doi:10.3390/v7041726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lozano JM, Muller S. Monkeypox: potential vaccine development strategies. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2023;44(1):15–19. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2022.10.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison C. Monkeypox response relies on three vaccine suppliers. Nat Biotechnol. 2022;40(9):1306–1307. doi:10.1038/s41587-022-01463-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafaati M, Zandi M. Human monkeypox (hMPXV) re-emergence: host immunity status and current vaccines landscape. J Med Virol. 2023;95(1):e28251. doi:10.1002/jmv.28251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker RO, Bray M, Huggins JW. Potential antiviral therapeutics for smallpox, monkeypox and other orthopoxvirus infections. Antiviral Res. 2003;57(1–2):13–23. doi:10.1016/S0166-3542(02)00196-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chittick G, Morrison M, Brundage T, Nichols WG. Short-term clinical safety profile of brincidofovir: a favorable benefit-risk proposition in the treatment of smallpox. Antiviral Res. 2017;143:269–277. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.01.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy SM. Tecovirimat: first Global Approval. Drugs. 2018;78(13):1377–1382. doi:10.1007/s40265-018-0967-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar