Addictions and the Criminal Justice System, What Happens on the Other Side? Post-traumatic Stress Symptoms and Cortisol Measures in a Police Cohort

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Bobo, W. V., Warner, C. H., & Warner, C. M. (2007). The management of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the primary care setting. Southern Medical Journal, 100(8), 797–802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chilcoat, H. D. & Breslau, N. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder and drug disorders: testing causal pathways. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(10), 913–917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Schwartz, J. E., Epel, E., Kirschbaum, C., Sidney, S., & Seeman, T. (2006). Socioeconomic status, race, and diurnal cortisol decline in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 41–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor, K. M., & Butterfield, M. I. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder. FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry, 1(3), 247–262.
   Google Scholar
• Cross, C. L., & Aschley, L. (2004). Police trauma and addiction: coping with the dangers of the job. The Informer. October 2004, 43–50.
   Google Scholar
• Darensburg, T., Andrew, M. E., Hartley, T. A., Burchfiel, C. M., Fekedulegn, D., & Violanti, J. M. (2006). Gender and age differences in posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among Buffalo Police officers. Traumatology, 12(3), 220–228.
   Google Scholar
• Fals-Stewart, W. (2003). The occurrence of partner physical aggression on days of alcohol consumption: a longitudinal diary study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 41–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fekedulegn, D. B., Andrew, M. E., Burchfiel, C. M., Violanti, J. M., Hartley, T. A., Charles, L. E., & Miller, D.B. (2007). Area under the curve and other summary indicators of repeated waking cortisol measurements. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69, 651–659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin, C. L., & Zimmerman, M. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder: Investigating the role of overlapping symptoms in diagnostic comorbidity. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(8), 548–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammond, C. J., Bond, J. W., Phil, D., & Grant, T. D. (2009). The effect of substance use on offender crime scene behavior. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 54, 376–381.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic Stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirschbaum, C., Wust, S., & Hellhammer, D. (1992). Consistent sex differences in cortisol responses to psychological stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 54, 648–657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurina, L. M., Schneider, B., & Waite, L. J. (2004). Stress, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and cortisol patterns in working parents. Stress and Health, 20, 53–63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, A, Zagoory-Sharon, O., Feldman, R., Lewis, J. G., & Weller, A. (2007). Measuring cortisol in human psychobiological studies. Physiology and Behavior, 90, 43–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 171–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen, B.S. (2004). Protection and damage from acute and chronic stress allostasis and allostatic overload and relevance to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Annals of New York Academy of Science, 1032, 1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, J. T., & Everly, G. S. (2001). The basic critical incident stress management course: Basic group crisis intervention (3rd ed.). Baltimore: International Critical Incident Stress Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health. (October 2010). Fact sheet—Addiction and the criminal justice system.
   Google Scholar
• Neylan, T. C., Brunet, A., Pole, N., Best, S. R., Metzler, T. J., Yehuda, R., & Marmar, C. R. (2005). PTSD symptoms predict waking salivary cortisol levels in police officers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 373–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouimette, P., Wade, M., Prins, A., & Schohn, M. (2008). Identifying PTSD in primary care: Comparison of the Primary Care PTSD Screen (PC-PTSD) and the General Health Questionnaire 12 (GHQ). Anxiety Disorders, 22, 337–343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pole, N., Best, S. R., Weiss, D. S., Metzler, T., Liberman, A. M., Fagan, J., & Marmar, C.R. (2001). Effects of gender and ethnicity of duty-related posttraumatic stress symptoms among urban police officers. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(7), 442–448.
   Google Scholar
• Richmond, R. L., Wodak, A., Kehoe, L., & Heather, N. (1998). How healthy are police? A survey of life-style factors. Addictions, 93, 1729–1737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sims, A., & Sims, D. (1998). The phenomenology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A symptomatic study of 70 victims of psychological trauma. Psychopathology, 31, 96–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., & Forde, D. R. (1997). Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: findings from a community survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1114–1119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundin, E. C., & Horowitz, M. J. (2002). Impact of Event Scale: Psychometric properties. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 205–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theorell, T. (2003). Biologic stress, markers, and misconceptions about them (editorial). Stress and Health, 19, 59–60.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. (2011). Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program II. Research Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of National Drug Control Policy.
   Google Scholar
• Violanti, J. M. (2003). Dying from the job: The mortality risk for police officers. Retrieved from http://www.stevedavis.org/spiritofthelaw/sol1art11.html.
   Google Scholar
• Violanti, J. M. (2004). Predictors of police suicide ideation. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 34(3), 277–283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violanti, J. M., Vena, J. E., Burchfiel, C. M., Sharpe, D. S., Miller, D. B., Andrew, M. E., … Trevisan, M. (2006). The Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) pilot study: Design, methods and measurement. Annals of Epidemiology, 16, 148–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar