A scoping review of factors that influence career changers’ motivations and decisions when considering teaching

ABSTRACT

Ongoing shortages of quality teachers has prompted policy interest into career changers as potential solutions. Although Initial Teacher Education (ITE) comprises one-third career changers, little is known about this group. This paper presents a scoping review of career changers’ motivations/decisions to choose teaching as a career. Themes from inductive thematic analysis are deductively synthesised using Margaret Archer’s theories on emergent properties. Knowledge of the profession, time, and career conditions enabled decisions to teach, while the status of teaching, beliefs about teaching, and money could enable but often constrained. Recommendations are suggested for attracting quality career changers into teaching; these include further research, increased flexibility in ITE, teaching taster pathways, and raising respect for the profession.

KEYWORDS:

• Career change
• pre-service
• teacher
• teacher education
• motivations
• scoping review

Introduction

Globally, the dual problems of teacher shortages and teacher quality have led to renewed interest in ‘career change teachers’ (CCTs). Broadly defined as entering teaching at a later stage of life (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003), CCTs are positioned as ‘game changers’ (Varadharajan & Buchanan, 2021), concomitantly filling job vacancies and offering qualifications/expertise and life experience. This renewed political interest warrants a synthesis of what is known about CCTs. This review, therefore, contributes to the international conversation about CCTs’ motivations and decision-making about entering the teaching profession. The research question guiding this review is: What conditions influence career changers’ motivations and decisions to enter the teaching profession? The findings synthesise what is known to make recommendations to support the attraction of CCTs.

The paper that follows is divided into five sections. First, we discuss the global problems of teacher shortages and teacher quality; highlighting the Australian context as an example where CCTs are a policy focus. Second, we elaborate Margaret Archer’s work around emergent properties as the chosen theoretical framework. Third, we outline the search and analysis methodology. Next, the data are analysed inductively for themes and subthemes, then synthesised deductively using Archer’s emergent properties. Finally, we outline recommendations for research, policy and practice to attract career changers to teaching.

Backdrop: teacher shortages and teacher quality

Ongoing global teacher shortages are a pressing issue requiring immediate attention (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2016). Shortages are persistent and worsening, with the United States reporting an annual deficit of 112,000 teachers (Sutcher et al., 2019), and 35/43 European education systems reporting shortages in 2021 (European Commission, 2021). Shortfalls of over 80,000 teachers across five European countries alone (Germany, Hungary, Poland, Austria and France), are linked with increased class sizes and declining recruitment standards (Jack & Cocco, 2022). Sibieta (2018) attributes England’s teacher shortage to population growth, low applicant rates, burnout, and teacher attrition of up to 50% in Physics and Mathematics disciplines over five years. Disadvantaged regions are particularly impacted, with secondary teacher shortages in 90% of Sub-Saharan African countries (UNESCO, 2016). Concerningly, the United Nations predicts a global shortfall of 69 million teachers by 2030 (UNESCO, 2016).

Similarly, Australia is facing a worsening teacher shortage, with a predicted gap of 4100 secondary school teachers in the next three years, not just due to teachers leaving the profession but also due to low ITE entry rates (Department of Education, 2022a). Although shortages have long impacted rural and remote schools and hard-to-staff disciplines (Department of Education, Skills and Employment [DESE], 2021), this so-called ‘crisis’ (Wilson & Carabetta, 2022) is exacerbated by recent global events, an ageing workforce, high attrition and insufficient new teacher production. In 2020, 47% of Australian school principals reported teacher shortages, citing secondary science, technology, and mathematics roles hardest to fill (O’Flaherty, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the situation, with critical teaching staff shortages causing temporary school closures (Rebgetz, 2022; Stephens & Calver, 2022), and pushing teachers to ‘breaking point’ (Taylor, 2021).

Discourses around teacher shortages often intersect with the teacher quality agenda, as the profession aims to attract and retain the ‘right’ individuals (Liston et al., 2008). These conversations dominate international policy, where declining education standards are presented as evidence of declining teacher quality. Policymakers increasingly conflate quality with outcomes on international achievement assessments such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), with declining reading, mathematics and science performance offered as evidence of widespread teacher quality problems in Australia and globally (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2019; Visentin, 2022). The drive to raise teacher quality has underlaid international reforms like the United Kingdom’s Market review of Initial Teacher Training, which proposed reforms to teacher education courses to ‘raise educational outcomes, close achievement gaps and level up opportunity’ (UK Government, 2021, p. 3).

In the Australian context, the ‘problem’ of teacher quality often centres on ITE, with media reports blaming lower ITE entry requirements (Byrne, 2013), and claiming that academic aptitude of graduating teachers has declined over the past decade (Visentin, 2022). Initiatives to raise teacher quality have included the implementation of: Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APSTs), rigorous academic/non-academic entry requirements into ITE, national accreditation of ITE programs, mandates that primary graduates take a primary specialisation and that all graduates complete Teaching Performance Assessments (TPAs) and the Literacy and Numeracy Tests for Initial Teacher Education (LANTITE) (Department of Education and Training, 2015). Many of these initiatives aim to enhance teacher quality, a regulatory/accountability discourse around the individual who is teaching (e.g. qualification, certification), but ignore teaching quality, a professional discourse which refers to how teaching occurs (e.g. ability to engage students in learning) (Bourke et al., 2016; Mockler, 2020).

Recently, the Quality Initial Teacher Education Review (QITER) proposed a 2030 national target to match top global student performance and sought submissions on attracting and preparing quality teaching candidates (DESE, 2022). The review echoed scholars including Hattie (2003) in identifying quality teachers as twice as impactful on student results, and the biggest in-school contributors to learning outcomes (Tudge, 2021). The QITER recommendations emphasised a need to attract ‘high-quality, diverse candidates … including mid-career changers’ into teaching programs (DESE, 2022, p. 2). The subsequent National Teacher Workforce Action Plan (NTWAP) similarly concluded that recruiting quality mid-career professionals into teaching was a priority, proposing support bursaries to do so (Department of Education, 2022b). These recommendations mirror political assertions that career-changing professionals like engineers and accountants bring deep expertise and the experience (Tudge, 2021) necessary to address teacher shortages, raise outcomes and enhance quality in Australian schools.

The term CCT is defined variously in media and literature, but commonly refers to individuals who enter teaching pathways after 21 (Anthony & Ord, 2008) or 25 (Varadharajan & Buchanan, 2021) with prior career expertise and skills developed through jobs, lived experiences and roles like parenting (White, 2008). Williams (2013, p. 3) characterises CCTs as having enacted ‘life journeys that their school-leaver peers are yet to experience’. For this review, CCTs are individuals aged over 21 who did not enter ITE directly from secondary schooling pathways. Research shows that CCTs possess dispositions of quality teachers, including strong motivation and commitment (Bauer et al., 2017), a good work ethic (Williams, 2010), and well-developed communication skills (Whannell & Allen, 2014). CCTs are common, comprising a third of the new entrants into Australian teacher education programs (Australian Institute of Teaching and School Leadership, 2019). However, little is known about this desirable group, despite growing interest and recruitment efforts through alternative, post-graduate, and accelerated ITE programs such as Teach for All, which recruits across 45 countries (Crawford-Garrett & Thomas, 2018). This scoping review, therefore, examines CCTs as a potential solution for teacher shortages and quality concerns and is guided by the research question: What conditions influence career changers’ motivations and decisions to enter the teaching profession?

Theoretical framework

To understand the motivations that underpin the decisions of potential CCTs, this review employs Margaret Archer’s (2007) theories around reflexive decision-making. Archer proposes that life decisions, here CCTs’ decisions to enter teaching, are influenced by what she terms emergent properties. For Archer, emergent properties are personal, structural, and cultural conditions that individuals mediate to decide on a course of action. Personal emergent properties (PEPs) include personal identities, beliefs, dispositions, personal capital, and prior experiences. In the context of this study, a person who has enjoyed working with children in a sports coaching role, for example, may conclude that they are well-suited to teach. Structural emergent properties (SEPs) include societal structures, institutions, and practices, and resources like time and money. A career changer with children, for instance, must consider family, childcare, and course schedules when deciding to change careers. Finally, cultural emergent properties (CEPs) are societal perceptions and positioning of groups and individuals, such as friends’ and family views of careers (Archer, 2007). These emergent properties (PEPs, SEPs, and CEPs) impact decision-making as distinct yet interrelated conditions that enable or constrain a potential pathway. Archer’s emergent properties provide a robust theoretical framework to analyse findings and interpret the motivations and decisions of CCTs considering ITE.

Methodology

This study drew upon the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocols and guidelines for scoping reviews to ensure quality, transparency, and replicability of findings (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Moher et al., 2009). The following sections present the data collection process, inclusion criteria and measures of quality, and data evaluation and analysis strategies.

Data collection and criteria

Data were sourced from:

1. An electronic search of general and educational research databases SCOPUS, ERIC, Education Source, and Google Scholar

2. A manual search of papers in selective highly ranked journals in the fields of teacher education and adult education

3. Reference lists of papers identified as relevant in the data screening process; and

4. Communication with authors of multiple relevant papers to identify further studies.

The database search was informed by undefined SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, Research type) model for identifying search parameters. The terms decided upon after a consultative and iterative refinement process was: (motiv* OR decision OR experience* OR choice) AND (teacher W/2 (education OR pre*service OR initial OR student)) AND ((career W/2 second OR change*) OR (adult OR mature)). Here the asterisk (*) is a truncation operator for spelling variation and word endings. W/2 returns results where terms are within two words of each other. Synonyms were identified using database thesauruses, pilot searches, and research librarian consultation.

To ensure the quality of the studies, criteria for inclusion/exclusion were developed and followed (Table 1).

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Included	Excluded
Studies focused on CCTs or prospective CCTs’ motivations/decisions regarding ITE programs or teaching careers Empirical qualitative, quantitative or multi-method designs, published in peer-reviewed academic journals Works published in English, between 2002-present (to balance scope and recency)	Studies focused on CCTs’ attrition from teaching careers, or where CCTs were teaching into higher education/vocational training Publications without consistent peer review processes were excluded to ensure quality (e.g. book chapters and conference proceedings) Studies without clear descriptions of research methods

Data evaluation and analysis

Details of 641 studies were exported into Endnote, then 117 duplicate records were removed. The first author screened titles and abstracts of 524 papers against the inclusion/exclusion criteria; this was cross-checked by all authors. Consequently, 64 full-text papers were read and 29 included in the final analysis (Figure 1). Information was extracted and organised in an Excel database, including descriptive and demographic data, research aims, design and methodology, findings, and recommendations.

Figure 1. Data collection and evaluation process.

Thematic analysis occurred first (Braun & Clarke, 2013), with the lead author reading and re-reading data to identify trends and patterns, which were assigned codes. These codes were iteratively refined with the researcher’s maturing understanding of the data, and finally collapsed into parsimonious themes and sub-themes. A second cycle of coding deductively categorised these themes according to Archer’s emergent properties.

Findings

This section presents the findings from the analysis of the 29 studies. Table 2 presents an overview of the studies, including location, number of participants, publication year, research design, journal ranking, and summarised findings. Studies are indicated with an asterisk (*) in the reference list. A general description of the studies is given before the five themes are explained.

Table 2. Summary of studies and findings.

					Themes
Author/s	Location	n	Design^1	Journal ranking	Prior experiences (n=22)	Changing circumstances (n=22)	Dispositions toward teaching (n=21)	Status of the profession (n=19)	Support mechanisms (n=16)
Anthony and Ord (2008)	NZ	68	MM	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔
Bauer et al. (2017)	AUS	17	QL	Q2		✔	✔	✔
Bunn and Wake (2015)	USA	346	MM	Q2	✔	✔	✔
Castro and Bauml (2009)	USA	14	QL	NIL	✔	✔			✔
Chong and Goh (2007)	Singapore	80	QL	Q4			✔	✔
Evans (2011)	USA	31	QL	Q2		✔	✔	✔
Grier and Johnston (2009)	USA	6	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Grier and Johnston (2012)	USA	4	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Hunter-Johnson (2015)	Bahamas	18	QL	Q3	✔	✔	✔		✔
Kaldi (2009)	Greece	15	QL	Q1	✔			✔	✔
Kaldi and Griffiths (2013)	Greece & UK	30	QL	Q2		✔
Laming and Horne (2013)	AUS	30	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Lawrence et al. (2019)	USA	4	QL	Q2	✔		✔	✔	✔
Price (2019)	UK	12	QL	Q1	✔		✔		✔
Priyadharshini and Robinson-Pant (2003)	UK	34	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔
Raggl and Troman (2008)	UK	18	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Richardson and Watt (2005)	AUS	74	MM	Q1	✔	✔		✔	✔
Ronspies (2011)	USA	1	QL	Q3	✔		✔		✔
Smetana and Kushki (2020)	USA	2	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔
Snyder et al. (2013)	USA	4	QL	Q1		✔		✔
Uusimaki (2011)	AUS	12	QL	Q1	✔	✔
Varadharajan et al. (2020)	AUS	508	MM	Q1			✔	✔	✔
Watters and Diezmann (2015)	USA	14	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Wellington (2012)	Malaysia	20	QL	Q3		✔	✔	✔	✔
Whannell and Allen (2014)	AUS	5	QL	Q2	✔	✔		✔	✔
White (2008)	NZ	6	QL	Q2	✔	✔			✔
Wilkins and Comber (2015)	UK	24	QL	Q1	✔	✔	✔
Williams and Forgasz (2009)	AUS	375	MM	Q1	✔	✔	✔	✔
Williams (2010)	AUS	1	QL	Q1	✔		✔

^aQL = Qualitative, MM = Multi-methods (both qualitative and quantitative components).

General description

Research has been published consistently over the past two decades, mostly originating from the USA (34%), Australia (28%), and the UK (17%), noting our search strategy favoured English-speaking countries. The studies were primarily qualitative (83%), with five (17%) multi-method studies combining Likert- type scales and open-ended survey questions. Most studies (83%) are published in highly ranked (Q1/Q2) Scimago journals. Studies were mainly identified in teacher education journals, including the Journal of Science Teacher Education (n = 5) and the Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (n = 4). Research participants across the papers were from more than 140 prior careers, including hospitality/retail, healthcare, construction and STEM backgrounds. Table 3 summarises the themes and subthemes.

Table 3. Themes and sub-themes identified from findings.

Themes	Sub-themes
Prior experiences	Teacher-like roles Teachers as role models
Changing circumstances	Work-life balance Career dissatisfaction External events impacting prior careers
Dispositions toward teaching	Making a difference Personal traits
Status of the profession
Support mechanisms	Social support (Un)supported pathways

Theme 1: prior experiences

Analysis of the studies revealed prior experiences as a prominent theme in the literature about career changers’ decisions to enter ITE. This theme is divided into two subthemes: teacher-like roles and teachers as role models.

Teacher-like roles

Participants in twenty-one papers indicated that prior experiences in teacher-like roles in educational settings, the community, or parenting contexts were influential in their choice to enter ITE. These experiences included tutoring in universities/schools (e.g. Grier & Johnston, 2012; Kaldi, 2009; Lawrence et al., 2019), volunteering as a school solar system ambassador (Grier & Johnston, 2009), teaching computer classes to adults (Richardson & Watt, 2005) or working in an environmental education centre (Smetana & Kushki, 2020). Some CCTs referred to prior experiences in community contexts (n = 6), for example coaching baseball (Ronspies, 2011), instructing martial arts (Grier & Johnston, 2009), leading summer camps (Watters & Diezmann, 2015) or supporting a special-needs child (White, 2008). Others reported teacher-like experiences developed through vocational leadership or training roles. These included ex-servicemen who trained military recruits in the army (Evans, 2011), a Human Resources manager who gained teaching experience delivering staff training (Williams, 2010), and a flight attendant who developed her teaching capacity by training groups of flight attendants (Laming & Horne, 2013).

These prior experiences infused CCTs with self-beliefs that they possessed qualities useful for teaching, such as a strong work ethic (additional qualities are elaborated in the sub-theme Personal traits) (Williams, 2010). These experiences developed positive feelings towards teaching, with CCTs reporting happiness (Ronspies, 2011) and enjoyment (Richardson & Watt, 2005; Williams, 2013) in working with youth. Five articles indicated that CCTs experiences as parents afforded understandings of teaching roles (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Raggl & Troman, 2008; Smetana & Kushki, 2020), specifically the psychological and social demands of teaching (Uusimaki, 2011), or insights into what parents want for their children’s education (Williams & Forgasz, 2009). These first-hand experiences of teacher-like roles influenced individuals’ decisions to teach. In other cases, decisions were influenced by having a good teacher role model.

Teachers as role models

Seven studies indicated the importance of participants’ prior experiences with role model teachers (Bunn & Wake, 2015) or mentors (Lawrence et al., 2019; White, 2008) in helping CCTs to better understand the teaching profession. In many cases, these teachers were in the CCTs’ family/friend networks (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Hunter-Johnson, 2015; Wilkins & Comber, 2015); one respondent recalling her first-grade teacher mother as a ‘model of the teaching life’ (Castro & Bauml, 2009, p. 118). Others referred to mentors in universities that modelled lesson planning, curriculum development, and student engagement (Kaldi, 2009); observing these activities helped the prospective CCTs to become familiar with the roles of a teacher and solidify the decision to enter ITE (Lawrence et al., 2019). In another study, a physical education CCT shared his belief that all teachers are role models and that he planned to continue this legacy by modelling healthy eating and physical activity for his own students (Ronspies, 2011). These experiences with role model teachers guided CCTs to choose a teaching career.

Theme 2: changing circumstances

Changing circumstances was the second theme identified in the data and is explored through the subthemes: work-life balance, career dissatisfaction, and external events impacting prior careers.

Work-life balance

Though several articles note that teaching is a lifelong desire for many CCTs (Price, 2019; Richardson & Watt, 2005), the decision to enter ITE often occurred at a time where personal circumstances made the career particularly desirable (White, 2008). This was commonly related to having children; in fifteen studies parenting was cited as a driver to choose the ‘family-friendly’ teaching career, as CCTs believed that the profession would facilitate work-life balance (Bunn & Wake, 2015; Grier & Johnston, 2012). CCTs expressed the belief that a teaching career would allow them to simultaneously work and meet parental responsibilities, as well as take care of the needs of partners (White, 2008) and ageing parents (Evans, 2011).

CCTs justified the selection of teaching with examples of the job conditions that they expected would allow them to successfully balance a career with their new circumstances and responsibilities. These included a shorter workday in comparison with other industries (Richardson & Watt, 2005; Snyder et al., 2013) and times aligned to schooling hours, allowing childcare needs to be met (Hunter-Johnson, 2015; Raggl & Troman, 2008; Williams & Forgasz, 2009), including during school holiday periods (Kaldi & Griffiths, 2013; Laming & Horne, 2013). Others identified the high employment rate as desirable (Kaldi, 2009; Wellington, 2012). A teacher’s salary was also connected to work-life balance; though considered low by some (Whannell & Allen, 2014), the salary was generally sufficient to support a family (Bauer et al., 2017). The desirable conditions of teaching were often contrasted against a dissatisfying prior career, as explored in the following theme.

Career dissatisfaction

Findings from eleven studies revealed that the decision to teach often arose when prospective CCTs were experiencing career or job dissatisfaction (Bauer et al., 2017; Wilkins & Comber, 2015). Some CCTs reported negative emotional responses to current/past jobs, such as boredom and alienation (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003), isolation (Anthony & Ord, 2008), feeling a lack of purpose (Wilkins & Comber, 2015) or meaning (Snyder et al., 2013). Others became increasingly dissatisfied with hours or poor conditions expected in some industries and saw teaching as a preferable alternative. A participant in undefined related long-held frustrations with research processes and reliance on applying for financial grants to fund research work as motivating the decision to transition from the science industry to a science teaching career. This subtheme is closely related to the following subtheme (External events impacting prior careers), where changes to career circumstances similarly directed CCTs away from prior careers and towards the teaching profession.

External events impacting prior careers

External events that impacted career stability and made it the ’right time’ to teach were evidenced in six studies. In some cases, this was related to world events including the September 11 terror attacks (Evans, 2011) or the economic recession after the 2007–2008 global financial crisis (Watters & Diezmann, 2015) where many individuals were made redundant. Other CCTs referred to more localised events that impacted career stability, such as declining regional manufacturing industries or increased outsourcing of technology roles to overseas countries (Bauer et al., 2017). In two studies, the decision to teach was motivated by an overseas relocation (Grier & Johnston, 2009; Snyder et al., 2013), or legislation that necessitated additional training to continue an existing career (Bauer et al., 2017). These changing circumstances impacted the career trajectories of prospective CCTs, making it an opportune time to consider the transition to a teaching career.

Theme 3: dispositions towards teaching

Dispositions towards teaching was the third theme influencing CCTs’ decisions to enter ITE, with two subthemes of making a difference and personal traits.

Making a difference

The belief that teaching makes a positive difference for communities and young people was cited in nineteen papers as a reason to enter the profession. Teaching was considered a way to contribute to the community (Price, 2019; Varadharajan et al., 2020; Wilkins & Comber, 2015; Williams & Forgasz, 2009) or ‘give something back’ to society (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Chong & Goh, 2007; Grier & Johnston, 2009; Laming & Horne, 2013), with one participant in Bauer et al.’s study, calling education ‘the key to life’ (Bauer et al., 2017, p. 192). Some felt so strongly in the societal value of teaching that they labelled the profession a moral obligation (Evans, 2011; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003), civic duty, or social responsibility (Hunter-Johnson, 2015).

These perceptions influenced CCTs to make a positive impact, with participants in five studies motivated by beliefs that they would be able to help students who were minorities (Raggl & Troman, 2008), in inequitable circumstances (Smetana & Kushki, 2020), or academically struggling (Ronspies, 2011). In one study, a CCT referred to the impact a caring teacher had on his own educational journey, recalling a maths teacher who encouraged him to persist when he felt ‘doomed to fail’ (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003, p. 105). In another, a male CCT from a military background identified the negative impacts of poor education on young black men and chose teaching to compensate for this (Evans, 2011). These experiences developed CCTs positive dispositions towards teaching as they could empathise with students similar to themselves and felt well-equipped to make a positive difference in the lives of these students. CCTs felt further prepared to step into a teaching role due to the personal traits they possessed.

Personal traits

Another subtheme identified as part of dispositions to teach was possessing appropriate personal traits for teaching. Participants in fourteen studies self-identified traits and skills that would serve them well in teaching, including confidence, sociability (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003), eagerness and resilience (Grier & Johnston, 2012), along with strong communication skills (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Williams & Forgasz, 2009) and relationship-building abilities (Grier & Johnston, 2009). Seven studies emphasised a love of working with young people, with one participant from Smetana and Kushki’s study professing students were ‘the highlight of my day’ (Smetana & Kushki, 2020, p. 174). Others referred to a love for subject areas, such as science (e.g. Grier & Johnston, 2012; Watters & Diezmann, 2015), or overall passion and enthusiasm for the career (Bauer et al., 2017; Varadharajan et al., 2020). These positive dispositions towards teaching encouraged prospective CCTs to choose the profession.

Theme 4: status of the profession

Analysis of the studies revealed perceived status of the profession was a recurring theme that inclined CCTs towards teaching in seventeen studies. Teaching was considered ‘not just a job, but a career’ (Evans, 2011, p. 623). It was seen as intellectually challenging (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Raggl & Troman, 2008), a reputable career (Laming & Horne, 2013) that is socially valued by the government, community (Richardson & Watt, 2005; Wellington, 2012), and friends and family (Grier & Johnston, 2012; Hunter-Johnson, 2015). Prospective CCTs believed they would get respect in the workplace (Evans, 2011), and professional interactions with colleagues (Watters & Diezmann, 2015) within a congenial environment (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).

While teaching was generally highly regarded, findings from six studies about CCTs entering teaching from professional STEM industry backgrounds indicated that teaching was perceived as lower status compared with a prior STEM role. This perception came from the CCTs’ friends and family, who considered the role a drop in professional status (Grier & Johnston, 2012; Lawrence et al., 2019; Smetana & Kushki, 2020). Primary school CCTs in another study reported that teaching was considered a low value profession particularly for males (Kaldi, 2009). These beliefs were also reported by the prospective CCTs themselves, who viewed the role as ‘just a teacher’ (Whannell & Allen, 2014, p. 89). This deficit positioning of teaching may have manifested from attempts to reconcile a past identity of scientist or doctor with that of a teacher (Smetana & Kushki, 2020). This conflict was demonstrated in one study by a self-described ‘very intelligent’ CCT, who expressed concerns in her ability to communicate complex STEM topics at a (lower) level appropriate for students, by stating, ‘the greatest obstacle (to teaching) is that I know too much’ (Grier & Johnston, 2009, p. 164).

The perceived status gap between STEM industry and teaching careers was also thought to influence the employment CCTs attained. Participants in two studies shared their belief that they secured teaching roles at prestigious, highly academic, private schools because of the high societal value these institutions placed on their prior qualifications and industry experience (Watters & Diezmann, 2015). One career changer explained ‘I wouldn’t have gotten the job if I didn’t have it (a PhD) … I teach at a very exclusive school … and that’s attractive to them when employing someone’ (Whannell & Allen, 2014, p. 88). This shows the status afforded to prior industry experiences and advanced qualifications which align with the highly academic organisational culture of some schools.

Theme 5: support mechanisms

The final theme identified was support mechanisms. This theme is divided into two subthemes: social support, and (un)supported pathways.

Social support

Eight studies discussed how social supports offered by family, friends, and mentors encouraged CCTs to enter ITE. Support was provided in several ways, including help with childcare and household duties (White, 2008), and psychological and emotional encouragement (Hunter-Johnson, 2015; Kaldi, 2009; Laming & Horne, 2013). One article suggested that having a partner also studying was a support, as this person was able to appreciate the demands of tertiary studies (Ronspies, 2011). Two recruitment programs foregrounded mentoring support for prospective CCTs. The first program recruited STEM majors of colour from undergraduate science programs (Lawrence et al., 2019), and provided mentoring to develop the social capital necessary for the teaching profession. The second program offered mentoring to CCTs in an accelerated program (Castro & Bauml, 2009). These social supports enabled CCTs to enter ITE. Financial incentives were also seen as supporting mechanisms.

(Un)supported pathways

Two papers identified programs that financially supported CCTs and smoothed the transition to teaching. In the United Kingdom, the Troops to Teachers program paired salaried in-school experiences with personalised university studies to attract ex-service people into teaching (Price, 2019). Similarly, a Malaysian study found that a monthly government stipend encouraged graduates to choose teaching as a career (Wellington, 2012). These support mechanisms, albeit limited in the literature, were effective in influencing CCTs to enter the teaching profession.

Conversely, participants of five studies reported the perception that ITE pathways were not designed to support the distinct needs of CCTs. One study respondent identified that no scholarships were available to support skilled CCTs to transition into ITE in priority teaching areas (Whannell & Allen, 2014), despite many CCTs having pre-existing responsibilities to provide for families (Grier & Johnston, 2012) and maintain financial commitments like mortgages (Varadharajan et al., 2020). The absence of financial support during extended unpaid professional experience placements was also a stressor for CCTs (Varadharajan et al., 2020).

Other examples where CCTs felt unsupported included a general lack of assistance from ITE staff in one postgraduate teaching program (Wellington, 2012), and frustration that the ITE curriculum seemed to prioritise the needs of school leavers (Grier & Johnston, 2012; Watters & Diezmann, 2015) and not value prior life skills and work experience (Varadharajan et al., 2020). Where career changers felt unsupported in ITE pathways, this deterred them from choosing teaching.

Discussion

To understand the conditions that influenced CCTs’ decisions to become teachers, the findings above are synthesised using Archer’s emergent properties. As a reminder, emergent properties are conditions that enable and/or constrain decision-making processes. These can be personal (values, dispositions), structural (institutions, time, money) or cultural (societal values). Table 4 summarises the PEPs, SEPs and CEPs that were enabling and/or constraining. Most of these conditions were enabling, which may be because the studies identified in the literature search mostly surveyed CCTs who had already committed to a career in teaching, rather than those who considered it but pursued other professions.

Table 4. Enabling (E) and constraining (C) emergent properties.

PEPs	SEPs	CEPs
Knowledge and understanding of the teaching profession (E) Belief in themselves (E, C) Beliefs about the profession (E, C)	Time (E) Money (E, C) Career conditions (E) World and life events (E) Support personnel (E) ITE preparation/pathways (E, C)	Societal value (E, C)

PEPs

We identified three PEPs evident in the CCTs’ motivations or decisions to enter teaching: having knowledge and understandings of what it means to be a teacher; and beliefs—either that their personal traits or dispositions matched those needed to be a good teacher or belief in the worthiness of the teaching profession. Whether CCTs gained knowledge and understandings about the profession from prior-like teacher roles, from parenting or by observing influential role models, their confidence was enhanced, and they were enabled to pursue a teaching pathway. Regarding the PEP of beliefs, this related to CCTs as individuals believing that they had inner qualities/skills/dispositions well suited to teaching such as resilience, enthusiasm, empathy, or a love for a chosen subject area. That said, where one CCT believed her overt intelligence would impact her capacity to communicate at a student-appropriate level, this was seen as constraining.

Finally, beliefs about the profession were emergent personal conditions that influenced CCTs in either enabling or constraining ways. For the CCTs that saw teaching as a highly regarded profession with an important social role to make a difference for young people, this belief was enabling, but where CCTs saw the social standing of teaching as lower, this was constraining. This constraint was evident in only one study. Generally, prospective CCTs expected to be treated well in the workplace and by society, and teaching as a career was thought to be intellectually challenging, family-friendly and able to facilitate work-life balance.

SEPs

Synthesis of the studies in this review identified six SEPs that influenced CCTs decisions: time, career conditions, money, world and life events, support personnel and ITE preparation/pathways. All were generally considered as enabling, though money and ITE preparation/pathways constrained in some contexts. CCTs viewed time, including shorter face-to-face teaching hours and extended holidays, as an enabling condition in their decision to choose a teaching career. Similarly, having a stable career with secure employment rates was also enabling. These conditions made teaching more attractive when compared with prior work experiences, where long hours or undesirable conditions prompted the consideration of a switch to teaching. Money was also considered an enabling SEP. CCTs were motivated by reasonable salaries and programs providing financial support during ITE. These structural conditions enabled CCTs to meet existing financial and familial responsibilities like childcare and mortgages. However, when the starting salary was perceived as low, or financial support for study was not available, these conditions constrained the pathway to teaching.

Work and life events that disrupted existing careers or priorities also enabled the choice to teach. These included global and regional events that destabilised prior careers, including moving to a new area, or shifting priorities after having children. Additionally, support from family, friends, and partners enabled CCTs to balance ITE with ongoing familial responsibilities. Finally, ITE preparation/pathways could also enable or constrain career changers’ teaching decisions. Recruitment programs that provided mentorship and support mechanisms were enabling, while ITE programs or staff that did not recognise the unique needs, skills, and experiences of CCTs constrained. Extended unpaid practicum experiences were particularly constraining.

CEPs

Societal value was the only CEP identified as both enabling and constraining CCTs’ decisions to become teachers. Where teaching was seen as a social responsibility or highly valued by the CCT, their networks, or society, this was enabling. Conversely, if family and friends of the CCT held the profession in lower esteem than other careers or deemed it inappropriate for men, these sentiments influenced in constraining ways. If highly skilled CCTs believed they could secure a desirable teaching position in prestigious schools, this made the profession more appealing.

Conclusion and recommendations

This systematic review examined 29 studies in response to the overarching research question: What conditions influence career changers’ motivations and decisions to enter the teaching profession? Most studies were from Anglophone nations (USA, UK, Australia), used qualitative methods, and were published in high-quality journals. Thematic analysis revealed several influences on career changers’ decision-making process; these were synthesised using Archer’s (2007) emergent properties to reveal how potential conditions enable or constrain prospective CCTs’ choices. This study found that CCTs’ knowledge, understanding and beliefs around teaching, and beliefs about oneself as a teacher, were most influential in the decision-making process. Structures such as time, money, and career conditions also influenced decisions, as did societal value of the profession but to lesser extents. In light of these findings, we offer recommendations for research, practice, and policy for attracting career changers to the teaching profession:

• In terms of research, there is a gap in the literature regarding why career changers who initially considered teaching pursued other professions instead. Further research is necessary to find out more about factors that constrain individuals considering becoming teachers. Examples may include career changers participating in tertiary access programs or training pathways related to education or discipline-specific fields (e.g. education support), or those who commence/complete ITE but do not enter teaching.

• In practice terms, universities must offer flexible timetables and delivery modes to support CCTs considering teaching careers (see also Downing et al., 2019; Varadharajan & Buchanan, 2021). Innovative practices under trial in ITE settings globally include intensive, self-paced, online, and blended delivery models (Downing et al., 2019), immersive virtual reality (Billingsley et al., 2019) virtual observations (Anew et al., 2023) and simulations of classrooms (Dean, 2023), non-traditional work placements including industry projects (Harking & Barchuk, 2015), and flexible assessment modes (Jopp & Cohen, 2020).

• Additionally, practical pathways that facilitate a ‘taster’ of the profession within school and university settings may develop dispositions in prospective CCTs. Our findings support Dean’s (2023) argument that future teachers need more opportunities for workplace learning (beyond existing placement models) and propose this be extended to develop opportunities for prospective CCTs to engage in schools and build understandings of the profession. Authentic in-school experiences could be paired with brief ITE trial modules, drawing inspiration from current examples like CSIRO’s STEM professionals in schools’ program (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation [CSIRO], 2022) and the University of Warwick’s ITE trial modules (University of Warwick, 2022). Making these types of programs more widespread will inform potential CCTs expectations so that significant time and cost investment are not lost. The taster/trial modules should be developed collaboratively between ‘boundary spanning’ (Prysor & Henley, 2017) teachers, school leaders, and ITE providers, and carefully designed to lighten workload burdens of existing teachers (OECD, 2020).

• Lastly, policy has a role to play, given the influential nature of the status of teaching on CCTs’ decisions, particularly those transitioning from prior careers characterised as high status (e.g. scientist). While some commentators have proposed changes to structures such as pay, workload and recognition (Department of Education, 2022b; Goss & Sonnermann, 2019) to raise the status of teaching, scholars such as Mills (2020) maintain that more needs to be done to increase respect for teachers. This may take the form of increased professionalism and autonomy.

These recommendations may go some way to attracting and hopefully retaining CCTs as quality additions to the teaching workforce. If the dual problems of teacher shortage and quality are not addressed appropriately with both short and long-term solutions, there will be dire consequences for students, schools, the profession, and society.

Disclosure statement

There are no relevant financial or non-financial competing interests to report.