The development process of urban agricultural networks to ensure urban food security in Hat Yai City, Songkhla Province, Thailand

ABSTRACT

The purpose study was to examine the process, results, factors affecting the development process of the Hat Yai urban agricultural network for food security, Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, Thailand, using qualitative research. Participant observation, in-depth interviews, group discussions, and inductive data analysis were conducted. Data were collected from thirty-one participants. The study found that the process of agricultural network development consists of three stages: network formation, seeking cooperation, learning and integration. The results are reflected at the individual, group, and network levels, linking them to the sustainable development dimension. The positive factors affecting the development process are the urban context, common goals, organisational culture, management, and building trust. The negative factors include the nature of Hat Yai urban residents in the context of developing countries, resource inadequacy, and public policy. The recommendations involve having holistic and targeted local public policy regarding urban agriculture to establish sustainable urban food security.

KEYWORDS:

• Agricultural network
• self-reliance
• food security
• global south
• Thailand

1. Introduction

The urban population faces complex challenges, one of them is food security, particularly in terms of access to diverse and high-quality food, elevated food prices, and limitations in producing their own food. This is attributed to the shift in lifestyles and environments affecting the activities and relationships of urban residents (Kassab 2021). This trend continues to increase in severity (United Nations 2015). The decline of agricultural areas with increased use of chemicals in the production process (Thailand Pesticide Alert Network Thai-PAN 2017) also exposes urban areas to food security problems, which greatly affect people’s quality of life (Zeeuw et al. 2011). Therefore, creating food spaces for urban people to facilitate access to safe food is an important guideline for urban development. Urban agriculture has occurred as a solution for creating a fair urban food chain through the development of social networks (Huh et al. 2020), meaning that urban populations work together as a main mechanism to build and develop processes by building relations, creating trust, and fostering interdependence within society in order to drive local food production and distribution networks. It is believed that the development of such social networks can help create sustainable food security in urban society.

Previously, urban agriculture has received strong interest among many countries worldwide. For example, the British government distributed small areas of the city to the urban poor, where they could grow their own vegetables (Bussabong 2012). In Havana, Cuba, the government distributed some land for people to farm, free of charge, leading to a coalition of people with access to farmland (Febles-González et al. 2011). In Thailand, urban agriculture has been practiced in many areas such as Bangkok Metropolitan, Chiang Mai Metropolitan, and Hat Yai Metropolitan areas. The above urban agriculture focuses on the cooperation of all sectors in the form of networks. It is believed that collaborating as a network can be a tool to ensure sustainable urban food security and a safety net to accommodate urban problems or crises (Bussabong 2012; Songkhla Community Foundation 2019). Therefore, the urban agricultural network movement can be seen as an important guideline that is necessary for the future of cities. It helps all groups of people build resilience to accommodate and respond to uncertain situations such as the recent COVID-19 pandemic, etc (Pulighe and Lupia 2020).

This phenomenon and its significance led to research on urban agriculture network development by using the case study of the Hat Yai City Farm Group in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province. Situated in the southern region part of Thailand, this city holds importance in terms of its economic, trade, and investment activities. As the city became urbanised, it went through changes in many aspects such as local migration from the three southern border provinces, the influx of migrant workers, specific local political situations, local and global environmental conditions, all of which continuously affect the city’s food systems, including frequent floods and food shortages in times of crisis. Consequently, the Hat Yai city farm group was founded in 2012. The Songkhla Community Foundation has been working as a central point of contact, coordinating work with individuals, groups, agencies, and related organisations with the focus on developing urban agricultural networks to ensure food security. As found in this study, the Hat Yai City Farm Group is an urban agricultural network that emphasises creating relationships and connecting people in the city through safe urban farming activities. The relationship building has occurred at the individual, group, and network levels, thereby leading to a stable and sustainable food system for the city. This reflects the importance and need for urban agricultural development by using social networks as a tool to solve urban problems and drive the city towards sustainability regarding food production and consumption. As a result, in order to provide knowledge that can be adapted and applied to other urban contexts, the objectives of this article are twofold: 1) to study the development process and the results of the urban agricultural network; and 2) to study the key factors affecting the urban agricultural network’s development as a solution to creating sustainable urban food security.

This article is organised as follows: First, the literature review section provides the theoretical framework and related concepts used in this study. Second, the methodology section describes the case study participants, data collection, research tools, and analytical methods. Third, the results section explains the findings on the process, results at the individual, group, and network levels, as well as factors affecting urban agricultural network development. Fouth, discussion section, and fifth, conclusion and recommendations.

2. Literature review

The literature review on urban agricultural network development processes to ensure urban food security consists of the following four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilisation, and stability (Prachasanthi 2009), as well as the concept of urban agriculture (Morris and Buller 2003; Venn et al. 2006) in which two objectives are associated with this study: 1) agriculture is part of the city and supports its development; 2) agriculture is the main food source for people in the city (Dobele and Zvirbule 2020).

It is noteworthy that the focus and concept of urban agriculture in the Global North (GN) and the Global South (GS) may differ in terms of goals and processes. Urban agriculture in GN usually emphasises food security goals that promote access to culturally appropriate food and well-being enhancement by engaging in activities that provide mental and physical health benefits, including catalysing social, political, and democratic development, civic participation, and as part of urban environment metabolism. Meanwhile, in GS, the focus of food security goals usually lies on its socioeconomic benefits, such as promoting production to reduce famine or alleviate urban food insecurity, as well as responding to basic needs in terms of food access. Such differing goals inevitably influence the urban agricultural development process in each location (Gray et al. 2020).

The three stages of the network concept are 1) the forming stage; 2) the storming stage; and 3) the cooperation and integration stage (Mougeot 2000; Nirathron 2000; Warner 2000; Charoenwongsak 2001). The network analysis consisted of three levels: 1) individual level (considering people’s relationships and viewing individuals as actors; 2) group level (interconnected links within the network and centrality of the network); 3) network level (ability to connect all the networks at both individual and group levels; centrality of the network) (Borgatti and Ofem 2010). The five main elements for network development process are: 1) building relationships between producers and consumers with emphasis on proximity and connectedness; 2) developing a sense of community; 3) inclusive organic farming methods; 4) supporting local farming communities and small businesses; 5) network transparency and shorter linkage between producers and consumers (Morris and Buller 2003; Venn et al. 2006; Jarosz 2008).

Social network analysis places an important on strong and weak ties, which tend to connect different networking groups. According to the sociological theory as suggested by Mark S. Granovetter’s work on ‘The Strength of Weak Ties’ (1973), while strong ties are important for emotional support, weak relationships have their strength in flexibility, enabling access to new information, resources, and innovation. The three levels of relationship are: (1) related (interdependent) and unrelated relationships, such as independent individuals, acquaintances, and strangers; (2) shared private versus public spaces, such as relationships between groups of individuals, relatives, close communities, or markets as public spaces; and (3) cognitive spaces as mechanisms for personal perception and categorisation, which refers to a group with a common identity as an arena for intangible relationships, which take the form of cooperation or exploitation.

The process of creating an urban agricultural network relies on the following important factors: 1) urban context and geography that is conducive to urban agricultural development; 2) connectedness of producers and consumers through fair trade without middlemen seeking surplus value; 3) having short distances between producers and consumers; knowing food sources and how they are produced; 4) information and communication channel mechanisms that connect producers and consumers, as well as other interested parties and 5) specific policy to support urban agriculture such as the usage of land, water, and other resources (Venn et al. 2006; Zeeuw et al. 2011; Carroll and Fahy 2014).

Several urban agricultural research and studies reflect multidimensional connections. From the individual level, linking producers, consumers, farmers’ markets, and community-supported agriculture (CSA) projects (Sage 2003; Venn et al. 2006; Tregear 2011). The involvement of individuals, such as private groups, community organisations and government agencies with a wide range of expertise in Ireland has been essential in the development of community gardens (Doyle 2022), fostering relationship among various groups within the community, and building flexible and resilient food systems according to the city’s geography (Carroll and Fahy 2014), fostering food systems that are economically, socially, and environmentally linked (Maxey 2006; David and Howard 2009; Morris and Kirwan 2011), leading to the impact on the sustainability of the city’s food systems (Feenstra 1997, Morris and Buller 2003; Slocum 2006; Zeeuw et al. 2011). Finally, holistic development is an important foundation for achieving sustainable development goals (Couret 2022; Mensah 2023).

However, in the study titled ‘Black Food Geographies: Race, Self-Reliance, and Food Access in Washington, D.C.’ by Reese Ashanté (2019), the author presents a view of urban food access and the unequal food distribution within the black community in Black Deanwood, Washington, D.C. This reveals participation barriers involving racism and a low level of access, contrary to the majority of people living in Washington, D.C. As a result, Reese proposes a geographical framework for self-reliance, emphasising the history, culture, and continuity of black activities against unequal food distribution, using urban agriculture as a tool in this operation. Moreover, in Trauger’s (2017) work, ‘We Want Land to Live: Making Political Space for Food Sovereignty,’ there is an emphasis on sovereignty, which aims to create an ecologically based production model, developing the city of exchange by democratising the food system in all territories, including countries, regions, cities, and communities. It is necessary that food sovereignty take place at the same time as political sovereignty. Accordingly, this work aims to improve the understanding of food sovereignty between the Global North (GN) and the Global South (GS) in order to raise awareness of the right to food, which is essential for a dignified life.

The review of the abovementioned literature, which includes the concept of food security, urban agriculture, network concept, and urban agriculture’s elements and factors, served as the framework in studying the urban agricultural network development process that specifically connects urban populations through urban agricultural activities, both at the individual, group and network levels, in order to contribute to sustainable urban food security.

3. Methodology

This study used qualitative research methodology, a case study of the city farm group in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, Thailand. The Hat Yai City Farm Group was selected as a case study because it has achieved several tangible results such as conducting safe agricultural activities, expanding the urban agricultural concept to other groups, continuously developing leadership, consistent group member growth, having an urban agricultural learning centre, collaborating with various sectors, and having operating mechanisms at the group, organisation, and network levels.

Thirty-one key informants who were involved in the operations of the Hat Yai City Farm Group were selected and divided into four groups: 1) the Hat Yai City Farm Group’s leaders selected from participants in the city farm group who possess natural leadership characteristics; 2) the Hat Yai City Farm Group’s committee or working group selected from representatives of each sector; 3) the Hat Yai City Farm Group’s members selected from the founding members and the extended group members; 4) representatives from various sectors, who are direct and indirect stakeholders of the Hat Yai City Farm Group, such as producers, consumers, entrepreneurs, independent academics, public media, and government agencies, etc. Further participant details can be found in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants.

Participants	Gender	Age range	Duration in joining group (year/month)	Economic status (baht/year/person)	Other positions/statuses
1. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s leaders selected from participants in the city farm group who possess natural leadership characteristics, Total = 6	Male = 3 Female = 3	50–59 = 1 60–69 = 4 70–79 = 1	2012– present = 6	31,000–121,000 = 3 121,001–374,000 = 3	Retired government officer, Agricultural academic, Community leader, Community residents, Muslim community leader
2. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s committee or working group selected from representatives of each sector, Total = 4	Male = 2 Female = 2	40–49 = 2 50–59 = 2	2012– present = 2 2017– present = 1 2018– present = 1	121,001–374,000 = 4	Group founder/Coordinator, Health Market Alliance
3. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s members selected from the founding members and the extended group members, Total = 8	Female = 8	30–39 = 2 40–49 = 2 50–59 = 2 60–69 = 2	2012– present = 4 2017– present = 2 2018– present = 2	31,000–121,000 = 4 121,001–374,000 = 4	social activists/vegetable growers, learning center leader, Private company employees, Entrepreneur
4. Representatives from various sectors, who are direct and indirect stakeholders of the Hat Yai City Farm Group, Total = 13	Male = 8 Female = 5	30–39 = 3 40–49 = 5 50–59 = 3 60–69 = 1 70–79 = 1	2012– present = 1 2017– present = 4 2018– present = 8	31,000–121,000 = 6 121,001–374,000 = 7	Retired government officers/Social activists, academic staff, writers, communicator, Government officer

Data collection was divided into 2 phases: Phase 1: In-depth interviews because this method provides access to information related to the context of urban agriculture and the network development process and Phase 2: Focus group discussions were conducted to collect data from the group’s leaders, committees or working groups, and personnel from various sectors in order to verify and add extra information. A summary of an interview guide and focus group discussions can be found in Table 2. At the end of the research process, data were returned to the sample group mentioned above. The data collection tools included guiding questions for in-depth interviews and focus group discussions as well as recoding tool. The results came from the inductive analysis method by analysing and synthesising data.

Table 2. A summary of guide questions for in-depth interviews and focus group discussions.

Part 1: In-depth interview guiding questions for 3 groups include: 1. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s leaders, 2. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s committee or working group, 3. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s members
Research objectives	Interview guiding questions
1: The urban agricultural situation in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province.	1. What is the context of Hat Yai city? 2. What is the urban agriculture’s situation concerning spatial, social, cultural, economic, political, and environmental dimensions? 3. What is the food system of Hat Yai city? How has the food system changed, and how it is today? 4. When did the Hat Yai city farm group form? Why did it happen? 5. What is the farming model in Hat Yai city? 6. Who/which agencies do Hat Yai city farm group work with? How do they work together? What are the results? 7. What is the role of Hat Yai city farm learning centre and what are the activities, both in terms of physical and mental health perspectives. What kind of knowledge, techniques, or skills that are taught?
2: The process of urban agricultural network development in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, Thailand	1. How does the urban agricultural network development process start from the beginning to present? 1.1. When did the network formation stage started? How did it develop? What are the results? 1.2. What is the nature or process concerning the seeking cooperation stage? What are the outcomes? 1.3. What is the nature or process concerning the network learning and integration stage? What are the results? 2. What are the results of the urban agricultural network development process at the individual, group, and network levels?
3: The key factors affecting the development process of urban agricultural networks to ensure food security.	1. What are the key factors affecting the development of urban agricultural networks to ensure food security? how do they affect the process? 2. In order to stimulate the development process of agricultural networks to ensure urban food security, what other factors/conditions should be taken into account? Why? 3. Do you have any other suggestions regarding the development process of agricultural networks to ensure urban food security?
Part 2: Focus group discussions guiding questions for 3 groups include: 1. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s leaders, 2. The Hat Yai City Farm Group’s committee or working group, 3. Representatives from various sectors, who are direct and indirect stakeholders of the Hat Yai City Farm Group.
Research objectives	Interview guiding questions
4: What is the development process of urban agricultural networks?	1. What are network goals, elements, structures, management style, policies, etc.? 2. What is the process of network development? Concerning 1) the network formation stage, 2) the seeking cooperation stage, and 3) the network learning and integration stage. 3. What are the network development results comparing to network development goals? and what are the results at the individual, group, and network levels? 4. Based on the results of such development, are there factors that support or hinder the urban agricultural network development process? how?
Remarks: The guiding questions can be adjusted to fit the situation in the field, in order to align and gain most beneficial data for research’s objectives.

Data triangulation was performed using data from various sources, including participant observation during group activities, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and interviews with several relevant groups (Pothisita 2006). Furthermore, this study is in line with George Marcus’ concept of multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork, encompassing several locations and the use of participant observation to gain deeper insight and interpret actual phenomena (Boccagni 2019).

Research ethics were considered and approved by the research committee in the field of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Mahidol University, Project Code MUSSIRB: 2018/022 (B1).

4. Results

The results of the study consisted of two parts. The first part involved the development process and the results of the urban agricultural network development to ensure urban food security. The second part involved the factors affecting urban agricultural network development.

4.1. The process and the results of the urban agricultural network development to ensure urban food security

The process of developing urban agricultural network to ensure food security has been found to have three stages, the network formation stage, the seeking cooperation stage, and the network learning and integration stage. The details are as follows:

4.1.1. Network formation stage

4.1.1.1. Step 1– create understanding about urban agriculture in Hat Yai District

The operations have been ongoing from 2012 to date. The Songkhla Community Foundation is a civil society organisation that operates and coordinates with individuals, groups, agencies, and related organisations in the area. This operation was initially funded by the Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN) to organise and promote vegetable growing in urban areas since the project believed that this could be the starting point and a tool to create food spaces for city people. Originally, there were many obstacles because local people did not understand the project. Moreover, according to the area context, many people faced economic challenges and struggles to make a living. As a result, in the beginning, the project was not as successful as it should have been. However, over time, the project activities have been accepted and successfully built trust among city people in urban areas who started to realise several benefits of growing vegetables in small spaces for household consumption, which eventually helped reduce household expenditures, and had many more benefits. Subsequently, the Hat Yai City Farm Group continued its activities and customised its approach in response to the area context, including providing knowledge in conjunction with other practicing activities until people understood and were able to apply farming knowledge to their own areas, as commented by one of the Hat Yai City Group members.

Through participating in Hat Yai city farm activities, I learn a lot about vegetables and how to grow them. In the past, I didn’t like to eat vegetables, but after joining the project, I started to like them as I took part in growing activity. There are several benefits linked to it, such as the fact that we get to exercise and always have essential homegrown vegetables for consumption, e.g., lemons, chillies, basil, holy basil, etc. This is not only saving our time to go and buy them from the market but also saving us on household expenditures.

4.1.1.2. Step 2 – raising awareness

Over time, vegetable-growing activities in urban areas have become embedded in people’s ways of life. Furthermore, it has expanded to other nearby communities in Hat Yai District and become widely known, because people realise the benefits of growing vegetables in small spaces around their houses, creating greater awareness for today’s urban populations. Through the Hat Yai City Farm Group’s activities, many urban people and group members have chances to meet and discuss techniques, methods, products, problems and obstacles in growing fruits and vegetables, as well as exchanging physical and mental health support. Therefore, the Hat Yai City Farm Group has become a common learning space for urban populations. It also reflects people’s awareness regarding the links between food and health such as the ability to reduce illness from non-communicable diseases (NCDs), and reducing consumption of toxic chemicals in contaminated vegetables and other foods. This has eventually led to changes in consumption behaviour among urban people, as suggested by one of the Hat Yai City Farm Group members.

I joined the group because I strongly believe and have faith in biological farming and safe foods consumption. I was diagnosed with nasopharynx cancer stage 3, and because of that, I drastically modified my consumption behaviour. The result was very satisfying, my condition has improved significantly. Therefore, I use all the spaces around my house to grow my own vegetables.

4.1.1.3. Step 3 – Expanding the concept and activity design

The Hat Yai City Farm Group has continuously designed its activities under the beliefs and goals of creating urban food security. Members’ understanding has been emphasised from the beginning. Gradually, the group designed its learning process together through organising its monthly activities. The vegetable gardens, then, have become a common learning ground where urban people learn about their relationships that can later expand to other communities in Hat Yai District. Furthermore, there are learning activities on farming techniques, such as knowledge about soil, fertilisers, planting space management in urban areas, as well as the ecosystems and environments specific cities. As a result, the Hat Yai City Farm Group Learning Center was established, providing city farm courses, creating production areas, and distributing fresh produce to consumers. Its activities are deeply rooted in the area, where length of time and continuity of activities are the main growth factors enabling the Hat Yai City Farm Group to meet its goals in creating sustainable food security, as told by the Hat Yai City Farm Group members.

Taking part in the Hat Yai City Farm Group helped me gain experience and useful knowledge, which I could adapt and apply to my own vegetable garden. I’m proud and happy to grow my own vegetables and able to share them with my friends and neighbors.

4.1.2. Seeking cooperation stage

4.1.2.1. Step 1 – seeking internal and external cooperation

Through ongoing activities, which led to its growth within the area, the Hat Yai City Farm Group has been able to expand to different communities in Hat Yai District. Moreover, there is also cooperation with local agencies to create awareness and understanding, while driving towards solutions for urban food security issues. The project successfully seeks partners and working alliances within Hat Yai District, which consist of several actors. For instance, the Songkhla Community Foundation, acts as a coordinator that works with Hat Yai City Farm Group members, agricultural research officers, and scholars, who help transfer knowledge about urban agriculture. The Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN) provides funding support for projects or activities, health markets where the project’s marketing take place, local educational institutions’ radio stations, and hospitals. In addition, there are also working alliances outside Hat Yai District consisting of local networks and suburban organic agricultural networks etc. This is one crucial point as mentioned by the Hat Yai City Farm Group committee.

Working as a network at local level remains important because this can create interrelations, fostering mutual understanding which makes it easier to communicate and negotiate between different groups. Eventually, this enables us to work together efficiently.

4.1.2.2. Step 2 – developing a shared information system

The operations of the Hat Yai City Farm Group as a network have established a shared information system with working alliances and partners both inside and outside the area. The shared information system is used together to develop and manage work in response to today’s complexity to ensure that all agencies, organisations, and other parties involved can receive information and learn together. The information system is organised through a website, www.ahsouth.com, as well as having ongoing information exchanges among the group members and network through applications such as Facebook and LINE. Moreover, there is a central database, iMed@home, allowing people who work in the project to exchange and share information with government agencies and academia in the public and private sectors. This shared database is an important mechanism for network development in the area, as suggested by the Hat Yai City Farm Group committee.

We seek network alliances and collaborate through the use of shared information system. We employ mapping to reveal who did what, where, and how, so we can see the overview of our area. Through this, we can identify relevant persons, governmental agencies, and other actors, from public, private, and academic sectors in order to seek collaboration, knowledge, and models. We organize several small forums to brainstorm and gain the whole picture together to have a balance approach and thinking between NGOs, government, and private actors.

4.1.2.3. Step 3 – creating a common learning space

There is a common learning space to facilitate knowledge flow and exchanges among one another with the same goals in creating urban food security. Such space is necessary for the development of urban agricultural networks due to city complexity in terms of structure, social problems, and diversity of people. Therefore, it is crucial to have a common space, so people can exchange knowledge and learn from one another. For instance, through forums, people can meet and exchange their views or hold discussions through various online channels and applications such as Facebook, LINE, and Zoom etc., as mentioned by the Hat Yai City Farm Group’s committee.

A common learning space is a place that allows us to align and see the same picture. We can discuss and help one another realize the same vision and goals. In order to change something, we need to talk through a forum, so we can understand one another’s points of view, which will lead to concrete practices to reach our goals.

4.1.3. Network learning and integration stage

4.1.3.1. Step 1 – maintaining relationships

This is an important element for the Hat Yai City Farm Group’s Operations. Building and maintaining relationships within the groups or networks in developing countries is considered challenging, as most people are busy or struggling with their daily occupational work for survival. However, the development of the Hat Yai City Farm Group in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, also reflects the importance and awareness of having safe food for health, which can increase quality of life and well-being for urban populations. Maintaining relationships at both the Hat Yai City Farm Group and network levels through forming partnerships and working alliances, as well as integration with various groups, agencies, and organisations in the area, are mechanisms for driving the city towards food security.

4.1.3.2. Step 2 – learning and integration

The Hat Yai City Farm Group has ongoing activities in which the Songkhla Community Foundation, a civil society organisation, works as a coordinator to connect different agencies in the area. At the group level, various activities have been continuously organised, namely, learning activities through learning resource centres and courses, creating urban and suburban production areas, product management and distribution of fresh produce to consumers at fair prices. These activities reflect the learning process that influences changes in consumer behaviour, including integrating knowledge among different city farm groups consisting of active farmers, social entrepreneurs, active citizens and/or consumers. There is integrating cooperation among various agencies and sectors both inside and outside the area, such as local networks and private sector agencies, to drive for city food security in addition to working with the government to push urban agricultural issues into urban development plans.

4.1.4. Results of the urban agricultural network development process to ensure food security

The results are found at the individual, group and network levels, with links to the international dimension as follows:

4.1.4.1. Individual-level results

Increased health awareness among urban people has led many to be more health-conscious and make changes in consumption behaviour. Furthermore, urban people have also gained technical knowledge and learning skills from participating in different city farm group activities they can apply to their own growing areas. Such activities permeate the urban lifestyle, allowing people in Hat Yai District to open up and create acceptance. The results at the individual level, therefore, include the changes in consumption behaviour affecting the overall health of family members. Meanwhile, the ability to produce some food enables urban people to be self-sufficient and have access to safe food, which eventually improves their quality of life.

4.1.4.2. Group-level results

The operations of the Hat Yai City Farm Group from 2012 to date have been developed both in terms of specific content and group development by linking communities within Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, leading to continuous increase in members. From only a few communities during its inception, over time, it has reached out to at least eleven communities, including general public that join the group’s activities, resulting in constantly increasing members. Many people realise the importance of having their own vegetable gardens for self-consumption and other reasons such as to reduce household expenditures and lessen consumption of toxic chemical contaminatants in food for better health, as well as to create interaction among urban people through activities held by the Hat Yai City Farm Group on a monthly basis. Therefore, the city farm activities are not just about growing vegetables, but also about growing friendships, relationships, and trust, which is a part of the process for building the city’s sustainable food systems. Furthermore, this led the Hat Yai City Farm members to recognise and view the goals of the group development more clearly. Together, members and those who are interested create and transfer knowledge, as well as share information and experience about urban agriculture.

4.1.4.3. Network-level results linking to the sustainability dimension

The urban agricultural network development process to ensure food security has been developed and created partnerships at the individual level by creating understanding and raising awareness through urban farming activities. At the group level, the results include continuously seeking partnerships to enhance knowledge and improve practice, maintaining relationships at the group level to build cooperation among network alliances and partners both inside and outside the area, including local-, private-, academic- and public sector networks to drive urban food security issues through different mechanisms such as Hat Yai Municipality’s annual plans and public policies driven through a provincial mechanism to advocate the importance of urban agriculture for future urban development.

The process of urban agricultural network development that has been embedded and taken root in Hat Yai urban areas at the individual, group, and network levels, reflects the awareness of urban populations in accessing safe food and attempting to create learning spaces, so the network development process can thrive in urban areas. This will eventually contribute to the city’s sustainability in terms of facilitating food access and urban development through efficient use of land and resources, creating a fair food chain, developing social networks and fostering innovation, as well as creating agricultural learning and knowledge for urban people. The abovementioned constitute a part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in addition to ensuring food security for urban people in Hat Yai District and nearby areas regarding sustainable production and consumption.

4.2. Factors affecting urban agricultural network development

The positive and negative key factors affecting agricultural network development to ensure sustainable urban food security are as follows:

4.2.1. Positive factors

4.2.1.1. The Hat Yai City context

Provides an important condition that allows Hat Yai people to recognise the importance of urban agriculture, because Hat Yai city experiences frequent flooding causing food shortages in times of crisis, as well as dependency on fresh produce and raw food supplies from other areas such as the central and northern regions of Thailand. Such conditions cause residents to be more aware about becoming self-sufficient by creating their own food areas. This includes healthy consumption trends that influence changes in consumption behaviour as people realise the danger of consuming fruits and vegetables contaminated with toxic chemicals such as paraquat, chlorpyrifos and glyphosate, which can cause non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The shortage of food in times of crisis and the healthy consumption trends, therefore, can be seen as important factors for Hat Yai people to increase awareness and modify consumption behaviours. As mentioned by one government agency’s representative,

If they perceive certain issues as their own problems, the person who can best solve them is themselves. Therefore, equipping urban people with knowledge and skills that can help them self-manage will eventually help them overcome the crisis.

4.2.1.2. Having a common goal is a crucial factor that affects the development of urban agricultural networks

This is an important factor since all the parties involved at the individual, group, and network levels have a common goal and direction to develop the city towards food security. However, a sufficient amount of time is required to drive this goal, and allow people to adapt, create understanding, and build capacity to apply activities as part of their ways of life, which eventually contributes to changes in behaviours and consumption.

4.2.1.3. Understanding organizational culture differences

The network operations in the Hat Yai city context are considered challenging, because that means working under different organisational cultures, each with their own complexity and varying problems. Working as a network that encompasses various agencies and participating organisations, therefore, requires a working process that is based on sincerity, open-mindedness ability to accept different views and opinions, flexibility in terms of thinking and facing different situations, as well as creativity in dealing with problems together. According to one local authority,

Within Songkhla Province, there are a variety of organizations and agencies. As a result, there are many different styles and ways of working. Including working together as a network to manage the system where different sectors come together, which is really quite charming and attractive to work in the Songkhla province.

4.2.1.4. Urban agricultural network management

This network has informal network management as it is driving a rather recent urban issue. The network was formed through the project activities and developed into the Hat Yai City Farm Group, expanding to other areas inside and outside Hat Yai District. Accordingly, the operations and management can be divided into two levels, namely, the Hat Yai City Farm Group level managed by the city farm group leaders together with the Songkhla Community Foundation. At the network level, it is managed by the Songkhla Community Foundation together with local partners. Informal management is an important factor that contributes to the development of this urban agricultural network. This is because of the flexibility, both in terms of thinking and practices that can respond to the urban context characterised by its diverse people and complex problems, as well as non-urgent issues people can take time to understand and adapt to in everyday life.

4.2.1.5. Building trust

Members are encouraged to participate and think together to solve problems in various situations. This is an important condition because it helps create trust and solidarity among members. As part of its operations, the Hat Yai City Farm Group has tried to build a relationship base by stimulating a sense of ownership among its members, including encouraging members to share experiences in public areas, which contributes to members’ increased self-confidence and pride in the group. This is empowerment and an important foundation for urban agricultural network development for food security. As one independent scholar said,

‘The city farm promotes urban areas in many aspects, such as self- and environmental management, disease prevention, and safe food consumption. This can be seen as a novel version of society. It has become a place for urban people to learn and connect, creating an ongoing process and also expanding to include other relevant issues such as health, household economy, building family relationships, building trust between people, and reducing social problems in many areas.’

4.2.2. Negative factors

4.2.2.1. Nature of urban people

Hat Yai residents are diverse, consisting of a variety of groups ranging from the middle class with personal businesses, lower income earners who work for daily wages, retired civil servants, and other general populations such as housewives, etc. Therefore, understanding and responding to different needs of diverse urban people can be very challenging, particularly when designing content and activities so different groups of people can understand and be able to apply in daily life. It is also challenging to connect the network’s tasks with various agencies from inside and outside the area. However, such challenges and obstacles can be mitigated when given sufficient time as a condition and continuity of joint activities at the individual, group and network levels.

4.2.2.2. The context of Hat Yai City is that of other cities in developing countries

The majority of the city’s population continues to struggle economically. Therefore, the implementation of the project in the first place was not as successful as it should have been. Only few people were aware of the project, while most people did not care and did not accept the project activities. However, over time, the activities have gained acceptance with the ability to integrate and build trust among people in urban areas, because they perceive and understand the benefits of growing vegetables in small spaces. Most importantly, the activities help reduce household expenditures, which perceive as an attractive economic benefit for many people.

4.2.2.3. Resource inadequacy for urban agricultural network development

Since urban agriculture is seen as a novel issue, driving the issue is challenging due to the area context and the nature of urban people. Civil society organisations that manage the operations also have resource constraints such as permanent personnel shortages for training or monitoring network activities, insufficient funding and limited assistance from other agencies, etc.

4.2.2.4. Public policy

The lack of specific public policy on healthy food and agriculture at the provincial level is a serious issue. Specific public policy that is conducive to urban agricultural issues is required to create guidance for urban populations over safe and healthy food, as well as building cooperation among various agencies. As mentioned earlier, urban agriculture is a relatively new topic, which has led to certain limitations in creating understanding, approaches, and practices. Therefore, having a well formulated and specific urban agricultural policy can contribute and drive the city’s food security issues more clearly and concretely.

As we can see, the process of developing agricultural networks to create food security for urban dwellers consists of both positive and negative factors. Reflects the supports and limitations under the geographic, political, and economic characteristics of Songkhla Province. Negative factors reveal another side of the development process. The above factors affect the agricultural network development process from the network creation stage. Step to seek cooperation and the learning and network integration stage. The agricultural network development process will produce results at the individual, group, and network levels linked to the sustainability dimension. However, its application to other studies or fields requires a comprehensive analysis of the local context and area specificity. People’s needs and motivations, goals, learning areas, activities, or exchanges, such as policies to support urban agriculture, etc. The findings in this study are summarised as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. A summary of the development process of the urban agricultural network to ensure food security in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, Thailand.

5. Discussion

The network development has mostly occurred through finding partners and alliances to solve problems. The working approach with communities has mainly been through social networks, largely pronounced in rural communities. However, this study shows that agricultural networks can also occur in urban areas. The complexity of the area and diversity of the population can influence the processes and conditions making it different from the network development in general. The development of the urban agricultural network in Hat Yai District has a developmental process that started with certain situations, namely health problems and natural disasters faced by urban populations in the area. Moreover, it also functions as a safe agricultural network that focuses on the ecosystem, which is an important process in urban agricultural network development. This is in line with Jarosz (2008) who believes that the growth of alternative food networks comes from the processes encouraging the development of alternative food networks (AFNs), thereby leading to sustainable food production and consumption.

The findings from the study also reflect that the process of developing urban agricultural networks should start with building trust, creating understanding, providing knowledge, and raising awareness of urban people. The process took time to realise the results and view the transformation of Hat Yai residents, which took place at individual, family, and societal levels. Nevertheless, the process of developing such networks did not occur in a strict manner, because the network operations happen in an urban context characterised by its difficulties and complexity in different dimensions, including the diversity of people and the obstacles in finding partners and working alliances. As a result, the urban agricultural network development as found in this case study combined different approaches and methodologies. For instance, building trust through city farm activities helped connect vegetable growers and consumers in the city, learning exchanges, such as techniques on how to prepare soil, seedlings, fertilisers, etc., which can be used and applied in urban people’s daily routines and tailored to local area contexts. This corresponds to the study concerning strong and weak ties by Granovetter (1973), who argues that a weak relationship is flexible and resilient. It allows people to access new information and resources, as well as to foster a more independent relationship. The nature of such relationship is consistent with networks development in today’s context, whereby the complexity of people, situations, problems, and other unpredictable factors are presented.

Furthermore, this study also reflects that the urban agricultural network development process can occur, even when there is a lack of resources to support the network such as a lack of permanent personnel for training and monitoring activities, as well as insufficient funding and assistance from other agencies. Regardless, urban agricultural networks can occur if local people are aware of the problematic situations such as those related to health and disasters, etc. There are several interesting factors regarding the network development process. Due to limited space, three key factors: the context of Hat Yai city, network management, and public policy are discussed in detail as follows:

This case study shows that the development of local food systems depends on geographic and social contexts in addition to being subjected to varying challenges and problems (Febles-González et al. 2011; Carroll and Fahy 2014) affecting the food security of the city. Regarding the Hat Yai city context, urban populations face situations such as frequent floods and increased awareness towards safe consumption trends, which have become the key factors in developing urban agriculture at the individual, group, and network levels. The findings from this study suggest that the development of the urban agricultural network did not seem to be a hot issue in the beginning. However, once urban people face situations that have strong impact on their lives and well-being, the issues become relevant in addition to drawing greater attention and awareness. Hat Yai residents’ health and livelihoods have been affected by adverse situations such as flooding, which causes food scarcity in times of crisis and increased awareness on safe consumption trends, particularly concerning toxic chemical contamination risks e.g. paraquat, chlorpyrifos and glyphosate, all of which can lead to chronic non-communicable diseases. As a result, many people have started to realise the benefits of having their own food areas, which led to the formation of the Hat Yai City Farm Group and its ongoing learning activities. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the city has been affected in several aspects. Even then, the Hat Yai City Farm Group continue to conduct regular online activities to exchange knowledge and learning among members and other interested persons. Such a situation, therefore, emphasises the importance of food and self-reliance, in line with Pulighe and Lupia’s (2020) study, suggesting that urban agriculture plays a positive role in reducing the risk of complex crises, including the city shutdown impact from the pandemic.

Participating in activities enable urban people to acquire greater knowledge about urban farming as well as opportunities to exchange knowledge and productivity. Subsequently, some of the group members naturally changed their roles into those of group leadership and eventually established an urban agricultural learning resource centre. In addition, this concept has expanded to other groups and communities within Hat Yai District and Songkhla’s other urban areas in Songkhla Province, as well as neighbouring areas. In later stages, the concept was concretely enhanced in the form of a health market, community market or local market, making it possible for urban residents of all groups to have more access to safer vegetables and other foods. This is in line with the study by Reese Ashanté (2019) and Trauger (2017), which highlights the importance of having food sovereignty, fair access to food in urban areas, equal food distribution, and food sovereignty in all areas at every level: countries, regions, cities, and communities, among others.

Although the Hat Yai city context is seen as a positive factor contributing to the network development, it has also had a negative effect under the context of developing countries (World Trade Organization 2023). Developing urban agricultural issues in developing countries are very challenging at every level (individual, group and network), because most city dwellers continue to struggle economically and may not focus on safe, secure and sustainable food systems, as compared to countries that are in the developed context or countries in which governments provide clear and concrete support such as in England and Cuba, etc (Febles-González et al. 2011; Bussabong 2012). Therefore, the urban agricultural network developing process to ensure food security that occurred in Hat Yai city area, which has continued its growth since 2012, reflect significant awareness among urban residents towards safe and secure food systems for their city. This is also reflected in Gray et al. (2020) study on the differences in urban agriculture between the Global North and Global South in terms of goals, which can eventually affect the developing processes and activities. In the context of Hat Yai district, Songkhla province, which is located in the Global South, the goal of food security is primarily to reduce famine in order to alleviate food insecurity and access to safe food. This goal requires a process to motivate people to work together as a group in order to drive more agricultural development in urban areas.

Regarding network management, the study reveals that informal network management was employed and seemed to be beneficial for many reasons. For instance, urban agriculture is considered a novel topic for urban populations, particularly in developing countries. The nature of Hat Yai city people, which is diverse and composed of a variety of groups, has led to informal network management that helps accommodate those differences and facilitate flexibility in terms of ways of thinking, approaches and practices, thereby allowing urban people to gradually learn and grow at individual, group, and network levels (Borgatti and Ofem 2010). Although informal network management seems to have had a positive impact on urban agricultural network development, especially in the early stages where people are learning and forming groups, long-term management requires more formal network management, because each level of the network is different in terms of ways of thinking, ways of working, and practices to drive issues within various agencies in the area. For an example from a foreign country, Ireland gives importance to the participation of individuals with diverse expertise, including groups, community organisations and government agencies in developing community gardens (Doyle 2022). Therefore, in addition to active participation from different sectors, a clear management system, such as having regular or permanent personnel to support, monitor, and evaluate the network as well as a clear funding system from agencies involved in urban agricultural issues should be in place, in order to support the development of urban agricultural networks to ensure sustainable food security in the future.

Public policy related to urban agriculture should be specific and well-targeted to empower and drive the movement of urban agriculture, which is holistic and safe agriculture, in a clear and concrete manner (Venn et al. 2006; Jarosz 2008). Improvement in the above issues is an important foundation for achieving sustainable development goals (Couret 2022; Mensah 2023). According to this study, the urban agricultural network is a result of cooperation between the Songkhla Community Foundation, a civil society organisation, and various agencies and sectors such as the Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN), leaders of the city farm group, and local educational institutions’ radio networks. In addition, there is also collaboration with other networks and health agencies at the provincial level. The emphasis on healthy food and agricultural topics at the provincial level provide a favourable mechanism for urban agricultural works. However, the push for urban agricultural issues to be more specific is important in order to clearly and concretely drive the movement at the provincial level. Furthermore, it is crucial to establish a clear goal and implement a robust framework with explicit support from local governments such as the Cuban case (Febles-González et al. 2011) in which the government supports and prioritises urban agriculture. Consequently, specific and well-targeted urban agricultural policies are important because, in the future, most areas will likely become urbanised and encounter multifaceted challenges, especially food shortages caused by global warming or pandemic-induced city closures, which have had a significant impact, particularly because cities often lack the capacity to independently produce food. Therefore, formulating and implementing urban agriculture policies tailored to specific areas and lifestyles can guide urban populations towards sustainable production and consumption, ultimately enhancing food security in alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

6. Conclusion and recommendations

This article examines the development process and related factors of urban agricultural network development to ensure food security in Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province, Thailand. According to the findings, this agricultural network development process consists of three stages, the network building stage, the seeking cooperation stage, and the network learning and integration stage. The outcomes of the process of developing an urban agricultural network to ensure food security are observed at the individual, group, and network levels linked with the sustainability dimension. The positive and negative factors affecting the urban agricultural network development process were found. The positive factors include the Hat Yai city context, having a common goal, understanding organisational culture differences, network management, and building trust. The negative factors include the Hat Yai urbanised nature in the context of developing countries, resource inadequacy, and the lack of specified public policy. Therefore, the recommendations for developing urban agricultural network to ensure food security are as follows: firstly, there should be a clear network management system. This includes permanent personnel to support, monitor, and evaluate the network, as well as a continued funding support system from government agencies responsible for urban agricultural issues. Secondly, at the area level, there should be a tailored local public policy on urban agriculture to specify the direction and goals of collaboration. This should be done holistically where all sectors engage in policymaking to create sustainable urban food security for all.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Orathai Paiyarat

Orathai Paiyarat is a doctoral candidate at the Population Education Program, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Mahidol University, Thailand. Her main research interests urban agricultural development, urban population quality development, and social project evaluation.

Uthaithip Jiawiwatkul

Uthaithip Jiawiwatkul is an associate professor at Population Education for Sustainable Development Program, Department of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Mahidol University, Thailand. Her main research interests concern population quality development, population well-being, ageing population and social programs evaluation.