References
- Adams, R. 2020. “Nearly 40% of A-Level Result Predictions to Be Downgraded in England.” The Guardian, August 7.
- AERA/APA/NCME. 2014. Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
- Anders, J., L. Macmillan, and G. Wyness. 2021. ”How Should We Assess School Students Now That Exams Have Been Cancelled?” UCL Institute of Education Blog. Accessed January 8. https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/2021/01/08/how-should-we-assess-school-students-now-that-exams-have-been-cancelled/.
- ASCL. 2020a. Coronovirus (Covid-19): Guidance Regarding Centre-Assessed Grades for Summer 2020. Leicester: Association of School and College Leaders. https://www.ascl.org.uk/ASCL/media/ASCL/Help%20and%20advice/Leadership%20and%20governance/Coronavirus-Guidance-regarding-centre-assessed-grades-for-summer-2020.pdf.
- ASCL. 2020b. Step by Step Approach to Allocating Grades Using ASCL Approach. Leicester: Association of School and College Leaders. https://www.ascl.org.uk/ASCL/media/ASCL/Help%20and%20advice/Step-by-step-to-allocating-grades-using-ASCL-approach-v2c-D-Blow.pdf.
- BBC news. 2020. “A-Levels and GCSEs: Student Tells Minister ‘You’ve Ruined My life’.” BBC news, August 15.
- Benton, T. 2021. “On Using Generosity to Combat Unreliability.” Research Matters: A Cambridge Assessment Publication (31): 22–41. doi:10.17863/CAM.100414.
- Busby, M. 2020. “A-Level Students Speak: ‘I Always Dreamed of Going to Cambridge’.” The Guardian, August 15.
- Christodoulou, D. 2022. “Is This the Future of Assessment?” Times Educational Supplement Magazine, December 14.
- Coleman, T. 2021. Digital Divide in UK Education During COVID-19 Pandemic: Literature Review. Cambridge Assessment Research Report. https://www.cambridgeassessment.org.uk/Images/628843-digital-divide-in-uk-education-during-covid-19-pandemic-literature-review.pdf.
- Corver, M. 2021. “Harder Times Ahead for Applicants and Access.” DataHE. Accessed July 26. https://datahe.uk/2021/07/26/harder-times-applicants-access/.
- Coughlan, S. 2021. “‘Pointy-elbow’ Parents Emailing Teachers to Boost Exam Grades.” BBC news, March 11.
- DfE. 2020a. Direction Under S 129(6) of the Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 2009. Letter Dated 31 March 2020. London: Department for Education.
- DfE. 2020b. Schools, Colleges and Early Years Settings to Close. London: Department for Education. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/schools-colleges-and-early-years-settings-to-close.
- DfE. 2020c. Taking Exams During the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Outbreak. London: Department for Education. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/coronavirus-covid-19-cancellation-of-gcses-as-and-a-levels-in-2020.
- DfE. 2021a. Direction Under S 129(6) of the Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 2009. Letter Dated 23 February 2021. London: Department for Education.
- DfE. 2021b. Pupil Absence in Schools in England: Autumn Term. London: Department for Education. https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/pupil-absence-in-schools-in-england-autumn-term.
- DfE. 2021c. “What You Need to Know About Grades in 2021.” The Education Hub Blog, 25 February 2021. https://educationhub.blog.gov.uk/2021/02/25/what-you-need-to-know-about-grades-in-2021/.
- DfE, and Ofqual. 2021. Analysis of Consultation Responses: How GCSE, AS and A Level Grades Should Be Awarded in Summer 2021. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Elliott, G. 2021. “Generation Covid and the Impact of Lockdown.” Research Matters: A Cambridge Assessment Publication (31): 68–83. doi:10.17863/CAM.100413.
- Fazackerley, A. 2021a. “A-level Results: Top Universities Expected to Stick Rigidly to Offer Grades.” The Guardian, July 31.
- Fazackerley, A. 2021b. “‘I’m Lost’: Poorer Pupils Lose University Places after A-level Grade Surge.” The Guardian, August 25.
- Goldstein, H. 1983. “Measuring Changes in Educational Attainment Over Time: Problems and Possibilities.” Journal of Educational Measurement 20 (4): 369–377.
- gov.uk. 2021. Prime Minister’s Address to the Nation, 10. Downing Street, London: Prime Minister's Office.
- Hembree, R. 1988. “Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety.” Review of Educational Research 58 (1): 47–77.
- Hilliard, A., N. Guenole, and F. Leutner. 2022. “Robots are Judging Me: Perceived Fairness of Algorithmic Recruitment Tools.” Frontiers in Psychology 13:940456. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.940456.
- Holmes, S. E., D. Keys, D. T. Churchward, and B. Black. 2021. Centre Judgements: Teaching Staff Survey, Summer 2020. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Holt-White, E., and C. Cullinane. 2021. A Levels and University Access 2021. London: The Sutton Trust.
- House of Commons. 2021. House of Commons Debate. Covid-19: Educational Settings. Vol 686 Col 763, January 6. London: House of Commons. https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2021-01-06/debates/D2A64DD9-6A6B-4EAB-8001-C3BACDE25B02/Covid-19EducationalSettings.
- House of Commons Education Committee. 2020a. Getting the Grades They’ve Earned. Covid-19: The Cancellation of Exams and ‘Calculated’ Grades. First Report of Session 2019-21. Report, Together with Formal Minutes Relating to the Report. HC 617. London: House of Commons.
- House of Commons Education Committee. 2020b. Getting the Grades They’ve Earned. Covid-19: The Cancellation of Exams and ‘Calculated’ Grades. First Report of Session 2019-21. Volume II: Oral and Written Evidence. HC 617-Evidence. London: House of Commons.
- Howard, E., S. Holmes, and N. Case. 2021. “Qualification Results in England in Summer 2020: Teacher Judgement in Action.” Annual conference of the Association for Educational Assessment in Europe; November 2021, Online.
- Jadhav, C. 2021. “Teacher Judgements in 2021: What We Can Learn from 2020.” The Ofqual Blog. Accessed May 17. https://ofqual.blog.gov.uk/2021/05/17/teacher-judgements-in-2021-what-we-can-learn-from-2020/
- JCQ. 2020a. GCE A Level & GCE AS Level: Results Autumn 2020. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2020b. GCE A Level & GCE AS Level Results Summer 2020. Thursday 10 September 2020. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2020c. GCE A Level & GCE AS Level Results Summer 2020. Thursday 13 August 2020. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2020d. GCSE (Full Course). Outcomes for Key Grades for England Including Age Breakdowns. Results Autumn 2020. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2020e. GCSE (Full Course). Outcomes for Key Grades for UK, England, Northern Ireland and Wales, Including UK Age breakdowns. Results Summer 2020. Thursday 10 September 2020. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2020f. JCQ Update on the Summer Series 2020. 6 May 2020. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2021a. GCE A Level & GCE AS Level Results Autumn 2021. Thursday 16 December 2021. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2021b. GCE A Level & GCE AS Level: Results Summer 2021. Tuesday 10 August 2021. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2021c. GCSE (Full Course). Outcomes for Key Grades for UK, England, Northern Ireland & Wales, Including UK Age Breakdowns. Results Summer 2021. Thursday 12 August. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2021d. GCSE (Full Course). Outcomes for Main Grade Set for Each Jurisdiction. Results summer 2021. Thursday 12 August 2021. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2021e. JCQ Guidance on the Determination of Grades for A/AS Levels and GCSEs for Summer 2021: Processes to Be Adopted by Exam Centres and Support Available from Awarding Organisations. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- JCQ. 2022. GCSE (Full Course). Outcomes for Main Grade Set by Jurisdiction. Results Autumn 2021. London: Joint Council for Qualifications.
- Johnson, M., and T. Coleman. 2021. Teachers in the Pandemic: Practices, Equity, and Wellbeing. Cambridge University Press & Assessment Research Report. https://www.cambridgeassessment.org.uk/Images/639354-teachers-in-the-pandemic-practices-equity-and-wellbeing.pdf.
- Jonson, J. L., P. Trantham, and B. J. Usher-Tate. 2019. “An Evaluative Framework for Reviewing Fairness Standards and Practices in Educational Tests.” Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice 38 (3): 6–19.
- Karami, H., and M. M. C. Mok. 2013. “Editorial: Fairness Issues in Educational Assessment.” Educational Research & Evaluation 19 (2–3): 101–103.
- Krawczyk, M. W. 2011. “A Model of Procedural and Distributive Fairness.” Theory & Decision 70 (1): 111–128. doi:10.1007/s11238-009-9189-4.
- Kunnan, A. J. 2004. “Test Fairness.” In European Language Testing in a Global Context: Proceedings of the ALTE Barcelona Conference; edited by M. Milanovic and C. Weir, 27–48. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Lamont, T. 2021. “The Student and the Algorithm: How the Exam Results Fiasco Threatened One Pupil’s Future.” The Guardian, February 18.
- Lee, M. W. 2021. Summer 2021 Student-Level Equalities Analysis. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Lee, M. W., and P. Newton. 2021. Systematic Divergence Between Teacher and Test-Based Assessment: Literature Review. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Lee, M. W., N. Stringer, and N. Zanini. 2020. Student-Level Equalities Analyses for GCSE and A Level: Summer 2020. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Lee, M. W., and M. Walter. 2020. Equality Impact Assessment: Literature Review. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Leventhal, G. S. 1980. “What Should Be Done with Equity Theory? New Approaches to the Study of Fairness in Social Relationships.” In Social Exchange, edited by K. J. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, and R. H. Willis, 27–55. New York: Plenum.
- Lind, E. A., ed. 2019. Social Psychology and Justice. London: Routledge.
- Lough, C. 2021a. “2021 GCSE Grades Not ‘Fair’, Say Teachers.” Times Educational Supplement Magazine, June 18.
- Lough, C. 2021b. “Parents Push Teachers to Raise GCSE Grades.” Times Educational Supplement, June 16.
- Mattey, S. 2021. “A Guide to What Happened with Vocational and Technical Qualifications in Summer 2020.” Research Matters: A Cambridge Assessment Publication (31): 42–50. doi:10.17863/CAM.100409.
- Messick, S. 1989. “Validity.” In Educational Measurement, edited by R. Linn, 13–103. New York: Macmillan.
- Mislevy, R. J., G. Haertel, B. H. Cheng, L. Ructtinger, A. DeBarger, E. Murray, D. Rose, et al. 2013. “A ‘Conditional’ Sense of Fairness in Assessment.” Educational Research & Evaluation 19 (2–3): 121–140.
- Montacute, R., and C. Cullinane. 2021. Learning in Lockdown. London: The Sutton Trust.
- Montacute, R., and E. Holt-White. 2020. Covid-19 and Social Mobility Impact Brief #2: University Access and Student Finance. London: The Sutton Trust.
- Moore, M. S. 1997. Placing Blame: A Theory of the Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Murphy, R., and G. Wyness. 2020. “Minority Report: The Impact of Predicted Grades on University Admissions of Disadvantaged Groups.” Education Economics 28 (4): 333–350.
- Nelson, L., S. Lynch, and C. Sharp. 2021. Recovery During a Pandemic: The Ongoing Impacts of COVID-19 on Schools Serving Deprived Communities. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research.
- Newton, P. 1997. “Examining Standards Over Time.” Research Papers in Education 12 (3): 227–247.
- Newton, P. 2007. “Contextualising the Comparability of Examination Standards.” In Techniques for Monitoring the Comparability of Examination Standards, edited by P. Newton, J. Baird, H. Goldstein, H. Patrick, and P. Tymms, 9–2. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.
- Nisbet, I. 2020. What is Fair Assessment? Was It Fair This Summer? What About the Future?. Chartered Institute of Educational Assessors. https://www.herts.ac.uk/ciea/articles/fairness.
- Nisbet, I., and S. Shaw. 2022. “Fair High-Stakes Assessment in the Long Shadow of Covid-19.” Assessment in Education Principles, Policy & Practice 29 (5): 518–533.
- Nisbet, I., and S. D. Shaw. 2019. “Fair Assessment Viewed Through the Lenses of Measurement Theory.” Assessment in Education Principles, Policy & Practice 26 (5): 612–629.
- Nisbet, I., and S. D. Shaw. 2020. Is Assessment Fair?. London: Sage.
- Noon, M. 2018. “Pointless Diversity Training: Unconscious Bias, New Racism and Agency.” Work, Employment and Society 32 (1): 198–209.
- Nye, P., and D. Thomson. 2020. “A-Level Results 2020: The Main Trends in Grades and Entries.” FFT Education Datalab Blog, August 13. https://ffteducationdatalab.org.uk/2020/08/a-level-results-2020-the-main-trends-in-grades-and-entries/.
- Ofqual. 2020a. Awarding GCSE, AS, A Level, Advanced Extension Awards and Extended Project Qualifications in summer 2020: Interim Report. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2020b. Consultation Decisions. Exceptional Arrangements for Assessment and Grading in 2020: Consultation on the Assessment and Grading of Vocational, Technical and Other General Qualifications. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2020c. Consultation on Proposed Changes to the Assessment of GCSEs, AS and A Levels in 2021. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2020d. Exceptional Arrangements for Exam Grading and Assessment in 2020: Consultation on Specified General Qualifications – GCSEs, AS, A Levels, Extended Project Qualifications and the Advanced Extension Award in Maths. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2020e. Malpractice in GCSE, AS and A Level: Summer 2020 Exam Series. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/malpractice-in-gcse-as-and-a-level-summer-2020-exam-series.
- Ofqual. 2020f. Ofqual Summer Symposium 2020. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ofqual-summer-symposium-2020.
- Ofqual. 2020g. Summer 2020 Grades for GCSE, AS and A Level, Extended Project Qualification and Advanced Extension Award in Maths: Guidance for Teachers, Students, Parents and Carers. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2020h. Summer 2020 Grades for GCSE, AS and A Level, Extended Project Qualification and Advanced Extension Award in Maths: Information for Heads of Centre, Heads of Department/Subject Leads and Teachers on the Submission of Centre Assessment Grades. Updated 22 May 2020. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2020i. Summer 2020 Results Analysis – GCSE, AS and A Level: Update to the Interim Report. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021a. Analysis of Consultation Responses: The General Qualifications Alternative Awarding Framework. Consultation on Conditions and Requirements for GCSE, GCE, AEA and Project Qualifications in Summer 2021. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021b. Appeals for GCSE, AS, A Level and Project Qualifications: 2019/20 Academic Year. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/appeals-for-gcse-as-a-level-and-project-2019-to-2020-academic-year/appeals-for-gcse-as-a-level-and-project-qualifications-201920-academic-year.
- Ofqual. 2021c. Awarding Qualifications in Summer 2021. Updated 20 April 2021. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/awarding-qualifications-in-summer-2021/awarding-qualifications-in-summer-2021.
- Ofqual. 2021d. Consultation Decisions. Alternative Arrangements for the Award of VTQs and Other General Qualifications in 2021: Approach to Awarding Qualifications Where Exams Do Not Take Place. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021e. Consultation Decisions: Decisions on How GCSE, AS and A Level Grades Will Be Determined in Summer 2021. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021f. Consultation Decisions: Technical Consultation – the General Qualifications Alternative Awarding Framework. Conditions and Requirements for GCSE, GCE, AEA and Project Qualifications in Summer 2021. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021g. Equalities Report 2021: January to December 2020. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021h. GCSE, AS and A Level Summer Report 2021. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gcse-as-and-a-level-summer-report-2021/gcse-as-and-a-level-summer-report-2021.
- Ofqual. 2021i. Information for Centres About Making Objective Judgements: In Relation to Awarding Qualifications in 2021. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2021j. Information for Heads of Centre, Heads of Department and Teachers on the Submission of Teacher Assessed Grades: Summer 2021. Updated 8 June 2021. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/submission-of-teacher-assessed-grades-summer-2021-info-for-teachers/information-for-heads-of-centre-heads-of-department-and-teachers-on-the-submission-of-teacher-assessed-grades-summer-2021-html.
- Ofqual. 2021k. Summer 2021 Results Analysis and Quality Assurance: GCSE and A Level. Coventry: Ofqual.
- Ofqual. 2022. Appeals for GCSE, AS and A Level: Summer 2021. Coventry: Ofqual. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/appeals-for-gcse-as-and-a-level-summer-2021/appeals-for-gcse-as-and-a-level-summer-2021.
- Papageorgiou, K. A., M. Likhanov, G. Costantini, E. Tsigeman, M. Zaleshin, A. Budakova, and Y. Kovas. 2020. “Personality, Behavioral Strengths and Difficulties and Performance of Adolescents with High Achievements in Science, Literature, Art and Sports.” Personality & Individual Differences 160:109917. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109917.
- Rasinski, K. A. 1987. “What’s fair is fair—Or is it? Value Differences Underlying Public Views About Social Justice.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 53 (1): 201–211.
- Rawls, J. 1958. “Justice as Fairness.” The Philosophical Review 67 (2): 164–194.
- Redmond, B., J. Golding, and G. Grima. 2021. “What is Lost When Exams are Cancelled?” Annual Conference of the Association for Educational Assessment in Europe; November 2021, Online.
- Sadler, D. R. 1989. “Formative Assessment and the Design of Instructional Systems.” Instructional Science 18 (2): 119–144. doi:10.1007/BF00117714.
- Shavit, Y., and H. Blossfeld, eds. 1993. Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
- Shaw, S. D., and V. Crisp. 2012. “An Approach to Validation: Developing and Applying an Approach for the Validation of General Qualifications.” Research Matters: A Cambridge Assessment Publication (Special Issue 3). doi:10.17863/CAM.100449.
- Shaw, S. D., and I. Nisbet. 2021. “Attitudes to Fair Assessment in the Light of COVID-19.” Research Matters: A Cambridge Assessment Publication 31:6–21. doi:10.17863/CAM.100410.
- Sherwood, D., and R. Cuthbert. 2020. “Halfon Right: Ofqual Has More to Do.” Higher Education Policy Institute Blog. July 14. https://www.hepi.ac.uk/2020/07/14/halfon-is-right-ofqual-has-more-to-do/.
- Stannard, K. 2021. “Will There Be a Mexican Standoff Over Grades in August?” Times Educational Supplement, June 3.
- Stratton, T., N. Zanini, and P. Noden. 2021. An Evaluation of Centre Assessment Grades from Summer 2020. Coventry: Ofqual.
- The Sutton Trust. 2021. Remote Learning: The Digital Divide. London: The Sutton Trust.
- Taylor, R. 2021. Is the Algorithm Working for Us? Algorithms, Qualifications and Fairness: Reflections on the Qualifications and the Pandemic from the Former Chair of Ofqual, Roger Taylor. London: Centre for Progressive Policy.
- Thorn, W., and S. Vincent-Lancrin. 2021. Schooling During a Pandemic: The Experience and Outcomes of Schoolchildren During the First Round of COVID-19 Lockdowns. Paris: OECD Publishing.
- Vitello, S., and T. Leech. 2022. What Do We Know About the Evidence Sources Teachers Used to Determine 2021 Teacher Assessed Grades?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
- Witherspoon, S. 2021. “Next Year’s Exams Could Be Statistically Contentious if We Don’t Act Now.” Schools Week, August 11.
- Witt, K., J. Whitton, and W. Rifkin. 2018. “Is the Gas Industry a Good Neighbour? A Comparison of UK and Australia Experiences in Terms of Procedural Fairness and Distributive Justice.” The Extractive Industries and Society 5 (4): 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.exis.2018.09.010.
- Wyness, G. 2017. Rules of the Game: Disadvantaged Students and the University Admissions Process. London: The Sutton Trust.