Adult ethnic minorities’ mainstream language proficiency: cultural knowledge, cultural identification, and language use attitudes

References

• Amoah, P. A., Koduah, A. O., Anaduaka, U. S., Addae, E. A., Gwenzi, G. D., & Amankwaa, A. (2020). Psychological wellbeing in diaspora space: A study of African economic migrants in Hong Kong. Asian Ethnicity, 21(4), 542–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2020.1775485
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1, Pt.2), 1–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030372
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beiser, M., & Hou, F. (2000). Gender differences in language acquisition and employment consequences among Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. Canadian Public Policy/Analyse de Politiques, 26(3), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.2307/3552403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamini, Y., Krieger, A. M., & Yekutieli, D. (2006). Adaptive linear step-up procedures that control the false discovery rate. Biometrika, 93(3), 491–507. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/93.3.491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 55(3), 303–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, J. W., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Acculturation, discrimination, and adaptation among second generation immigrant youth in Montreal and Paris. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34(3), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.11.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertsekas, D. P. (2014). Constrained optimization and Lagrange multiplier methods. Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental authority questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57(1), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5701_13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett, L. (1998). Issues in immigrant settlement in Australia. National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
   Google Scholar
• Byram, M. (2000). Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Census and Statistics Department. (2017). Summary results of 2016 population by-census announced. https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/press_release/pressReleaseDetail.jsp?charsetID=1&pressRID=4158
   Google Scholar
• Census and Statistics Department. (2021). Thematic report: Ethnic minorities. https://www.census2021.gov.hk/doc/pub/21c-ethnic-minorities.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Census and Statistics Department. (2023). Median monthly household income. https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/scode500.html#section4.
   Google Scholar
• Cheung, K. C. K., & Chou, K. L. (2018). Child poverty among Hong Kong ethnic minorities. Social Indicators Research, 137(1), 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1599-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1999). Immigration, language and multiculturalism in Australia. Australian Economic Review, 32(4), 369–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8462.00124
   Google Scholar
• Choi, Y., Park, M., Lee, J. P., Yasui, M., & Kim, T. Y. (2018). Explicating acculturation strategies among Asian American youth: Subtypes and correlates across Filipino and Korean Americans. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(10), 2181–2205. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0862-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clément, R., Baker, S. C., Josephson, G., & Noels, K. A. (2005). Media effects on ethnic identity among linguistic majorities and minorities: A longitudinal study of a bilingual setting. Human Communication Research, 31(3), 399–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1468-2598.2005.tb00877.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clément, R., Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norms, and vitality. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 22(2), 190–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X03022002003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J., West, S. G., Aiken, L., & Cohen, P. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Crandall, C. S., Preacher, K. J., Bovaird, J. A., Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2012). Structural equation modeling of mediation and moderation with contextual factors. In A. Bovaird & N. A. Card (Eds.), Modeling contextual effects in longitudinal studies (pp. 211–234). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2016). Conflicting language ideologies and contradictory language practices in Singaporean multilingual families. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 37(7), 694–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2015.1127926
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curdt-Christiansen, X. L., Li, W., & Zhu, H. (2021). Family language policy: A multi-level investigation of multilingual practices in transnational families. America Association of Applied Linguistics. https://aaal.confex.com/aaal/2020/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/3933
   Google Scholar
• Duff, P. (2019). Social dimensions and processes in second language acquisition: Multilingual socialization in transnational contexts . Modern Language Journal, 103(S1), 6–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12534
   Google Scholar
• Embretson, S. E., & Reise, S. P. (2013). Item response theory. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, D., Einav, M., & Margalit, M. (2018). Does family cohesion predict children's effort? The mediating roles of sense of coherence, hope, and loneliness. The Journal of Psychology, 152(5), 276–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1447434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fogle, L., & King, K. A. (2013). Child agency and language policy in transnational families. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 19, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.5070/L4190005288
   Google Scholar
• Forrest, J., & Dandy, J. (2018). Proficiency in English, linguistic shift and ethnic capital: An intergenerational analysis of non-English speaking background immigrant groups in Sydney, Australia. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2017.1315949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gatbonton, E., & Trofimovich, P. (2008). The ethnic group affiliation and L2 proficiency link: Empirical evidence. Language Awareness, 17(3), 229–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658410802146867
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gatbonton, E., Trofimovich, P., & Magid, M. (2005). Learners’ ethnic group affiliation and L2 pronunciation accuracy: A sociolinguistic investigation. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 489–511. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, H. (2011). Multilevel statistical models. Edward Arnold.
   Google Scholar
• Gorodzeisky, A., Sarid, O., Mirsky, J., & Slonim-Nevo, V. (2014). Immigrant families: Mothers’ and fathers’ proficiency in a host-country language and psychological well-being of daughters and sons. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(5), 713–727. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113519859
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu, M. (2015). A complex interplay between religion, gender and marginalization: Pakistani schoolgirls in Hong Kong. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(11), 1934–1951. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2014.941895
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu, M., Chiu, M., & Li, Z. (2021). Acculturation, perceived discrimination, academic identity, gender and Chinese language learning among ethnic minority adolescents: A structural equation modeling analysis. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(7), 2454–2468. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1920882
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu, M., Kou, Z., & Guo, X. (2019). Understanding Chinese language teachers’ language ideologies in teaching South Asian students in Hong Kong. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(8), 1030–1047. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2017.1332000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu, M., & Lai, C. (2019). From Chungking mansions to tertiary institution: Acculturation and language practices of an immigrant mother and her daughter. Linguistics and Education, 52, 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2019.06.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu, M., & Tong, H.-K. (2020). Constructing classed linguistic practices across borders: Family language policy in South(east) Asian families in Hong Kong. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 41(7), 581–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1622708
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gürsoy, E., & Ertaşoğlu, L. D. (2019). Syrian refugees’ perception of barriers and bridges towards integration into Turkish society. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 32(2), 128–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2018.1542000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia, F., Gottardo, A., Chen, X., Koh, P., & Pasquarella, A. (2016). English proficiency and acculturation among Chinese immigrant youth in Canada: A reciprocal relationship. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 37(8), 774–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2015.1133630
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (2018). LISREL 10.1. Scientific Software International.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, P. (2008). Guide to econometrics. Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Lambelet, A. (2021). Lexical diversity development in newly arrived parent-child immigrant pairs: Aptitude, age, exposure, and anxiety. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 41, 76–94. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190521000039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, W., & Lin, X. (2019). Family language policy in English as a foreign language: A case study from China to Canada. Language Policy, 18(2), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-018-9475-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E. M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Socialization, personality, and social development (, pp. 1–101). Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Makarova, V., Terekhova, N., & Mousavi, A. (2019). Children’s language exposure and parental language attitudes in Russian-as-a-heritage-language acquisition by bilingual and multilingual children in Canada. International Journal of Bilingualism, 23(2), 457–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006917740058
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer, R. E., Stull, A. T., Campbell, J., Almeroth, K., Bimber, B., Chun, D., & Knight, A. (2007). Overestimation bias in self-reported SAT scores. Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9034-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meraviglia, C., Ganzeboom, H. B., & De Luca, D. (2016). A new international measure of social stratification. Contemporary Social Science, 11(2-3), 125–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2016.1215512.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel, A., Titzmann, P. F., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2012). Language shift among adolescent ethnic German immigrants: Predictors of increasing use of German over time. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(2), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paladino, M.-P., Poddesu, L., Rauzi, M., Vaes, J., Cadinu, M., & Forer, D. (2009). Second language competence in the Italian-speaking population of Alto Adige/Südtirol. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 28(3), 222–243. http://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X09335333
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, Y. S., Kim, B. S. K., Chiang, J., & Ju, C. M. (2010). Acculturation, enculturation, parental adherence to Asian cultural values, parenting styles, and family conflict among Asian American college students. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018961
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, S. G., Clarke, A. V., Eltareb, F., Macciomei, E. E., & Wickham, R. E. (2016). Newcomer immigrant adolescents: A mixed-methods examination of family stressors and school outcomes. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(2), 163–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peugh, J. L., & Enders, C. K. (2004). Missing data in educational research. Review of Educational Research, 74(4), 525–556. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074004525
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polat, N., & Schallert, D. L. (2013). Kurdish adolescents acquiring Turkish: Their self‐determined motivation and identification with L1 and L2 communities as predictors of L2 accent attainment. The Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 745–763. http://doi.org/10.1111/modl.v97.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubenfeld, S., Clément, R., Lussier, D., Lebrun, M., & Auger, R. (2006). Second language learning and cultural representations: Beyond competence and identity. Language Learning, 56(4), 609–631. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00390.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabatier, C. (2008). Ethnic and national identity among second-generation immigrant adolescents in France: The role of social context and family. Journal of Adolescence, 31(2), 185–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.08.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sano, Y., Kaida, L., & Tenkorang, E. Y. (2015). Racial variations in ethnic identity among the children of immigrants in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 47(3), 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2015.0030
   Google Scholar
• Soehl, T. (2016). But do they speak it? The intergenerational transmission of home-country language in migrant families in France. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(9), 1513–1535. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1126171
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbach, M. (2010). Quand je sors d’accueil: Linguistic integration of immigrant adolescents in Quebec secondary schools. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 23(2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908311003786711
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suárez-Orozco, C., Onaga, M., & de Lardemelle, C. (2010). Promoting academic engagement among immigrant adolescents through school-family-community collaboration. Professional School Counseling, 14(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.5330/prsc.14.1.xl6227108g624057.
   Google Scholar
• Triadafilopoulos, T. (2006). Family immigration policy in comparative perspective: Canada and the United States. Canadian Issues, Canadian Issues(Spring), 30–33.
   Google Scholar
• Trofimovich, P., & Turuseva, L. (2015). Ethnic identity and second language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trofimovich, P., Turuseva, L., & Gatbonton, E. (2013). Group membership and identity issues in second language learning. Language Teaching, 46(4), 563–567. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026144481300030X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai, L. M., Park, H., Liu, L. L., & Lau, A. S. (2012). Distinct pathways from parental cultural orientation to young children’s bilingual development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(5), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2012.07.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Der Slik, F. W., Van Hout, R. W., & Schepens, J. J. (2015). The gender gap in second language acquisition: Gender differences in the acquisition of Dutch among immigrants from 88 countries with 49 mother tongues. PLoS One, 10(11), e0142056. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, H., & Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2021). Conflicting linguistic identities: Language choices of parents and their children in rural migrant workers’ families. Current Issues in Language Planning, 22, 408–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2020.1748370
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zea, M. C., Asner-Self, K. K., Birman, D., & Buki, L. P. (2003). The abbreviated multidimentional acculturation scale: Empirical validation with two Latino/Latina samples. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(2), 107–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.9.2.107.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar