The Narrow Definition of Genocide & Its Role in Investigating and Prosecuting Charges of Genocide in Romania

References

• Andrei, B. 2021. “Alexandru Vișinescu a murit acum 3 ani, dar procesul lui continuă! Familia torționarului a fost dată în judecată” [ Alexandru Visinescu died 3 years ago, but his trial goes on. The family of the torturer was sued]. Fanatik, October 21, 2021. https://www.fanatik.ro/alexandru-visinescu-a-murit-acum-3-ani-dar-procesul-lui-co0ntinua-familia-tortionarului-a-fost-data-in-judecata-19783516.
   Google Scholar
• Arun, G. 2019. “Ceremoniile realităţii: Revoluţionari fără revoluţie” [Reality Ceremonies: Revolutionaries Without Revolution]. Deutsche Welle, December 20, 2019. https://www.dw.com/ro/ceremoniile-realit%C4%83%C5%A3ii-revolu%C5%A3ionari-f%C4%83r%C4%83-revolu%C5%A3ie/a-51737120.
   Google Scholar
• Aschheim, S. 2004. “Imagining the Absolute: Mapping Western Conceptions of Evil.” In The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices, edited by H. Dubiel and G. Motzkin, 73–85. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• BBC News. 2022. “How Do You Define Genocide?” BBC, April 4, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-11108059.
   Google Scholar
• Boldur-Latescu, G. 2002. “Fenomenul Piteşti-un experiment menit să impună dubla gândire” [The Pitești phenomenon – an experiment meant to impose double thinking]. Aldine 319:2–3.
   Google Scholar
• Boldur-Lăţescu, G. 2004. The Communist Genocide in Romania. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Borcea, S. 2020. “Lege reparatorie pentru persecutaţii politic din comunism. Ce indemnizaţie lunară vor primi urmaşii lor” [Reparation law for political persecution under communism. What monthly allowance will their descendants receive?]. Adevarul.ro, December 28, 2020. https://adevarul.ro/locale/focsani/lege-reparatorie-persecutatii-politic-comunism-indemnizatie-lunara-vor-primi-urmasii-lor-1_5fe864185163ec42715192bc/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Burakovski, A. 2011. Dictatura lui Nicolae Ceaușescu, 1965–1989. [Nicolae Ceausescu’s dictatorship, 1965–1989 – Genius of the Carpathians]. Iași: POLIROM.
   Google Scholar
• Card, C. 2005. “Genocide and Social Death.” In Genocide and Human Rights, and J. K. Roth, 238–255. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Ciobanu, M. 2014. “Post-Communist Transitional Justice at 25: Unresolved Dilemmas.” Analele Universitatii din Bucuresti. Seria Stiinte Politice 16 (2): 119–136.
   Google Scholar
• Ciobanu, M. 2015. “Piteşti: A Project in Reeducation and Its Post-1989 Interpretation in Romania.” Nationalities Papers 43 (4): 615–633. https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2014.984288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciuncan, D. 2016. Genocidul. “Imprescriptibilitate. Legea Mai Favorabilă.” [Genocide. Imprescriptibility. The Most Favorable Law]. Dorin Ciuncan. Cronica de documentare juridice, February 11, 2016. https://dorin.ciuncan.com/documentare/genocidul-imprescriptibilitate-legea-mai-favorabila/.
   Google Scholar
• CommunistCrimes. 2018. “Why Commemorate Victims of Communism?” https://communistcrimes.org/en/search?keys=genocide.
   Google Scholar
• Constantinescu-Mărunțel, C.-N. 2020. “Infracțiunile Contra Umanității Și Genocidul,” [Crimes against humanity and genocide]. Doctoral Dissertation, Faculty of Law, University of Bucharest.
   Google Scholar
• Criminal Code of the Republic of Romania. 1969. “Art. 357: Genocide.”
   Google Scholar
• Dahm, J. “EU Parliament Votes to Recognise ‘Holodomor’ Famine as Genocide”. EURACTIV.com, December 15, 2022. https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/news/eu-parliament-votes-to-recognise-holodomor-famine-as-genocide/.
   Google Scholar
• DeGuzman, M. M. 2020. Shocking the Conscience of Humanity: Gravity and the Legitimacy of International Criminal Law. USA: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Deletant, D. 1995. Ceausescu and the Securitate. Coercion and Dissent in Romania, 1965–1989. London: Hurst & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Diaconescu, G. 1991. Genocidul. Bucuresti: Editura Militară.
   Google Scholar
• Digi 24. 2018. “Avertismentul unui istoric: ‘Astăzi a murit Ioan Ficior. Curând va muri şi Vişinescu. Atunci vom trage ipocrit cortina’” [A historian’s warning: “Ioan Ficior died today. Vişinescu will soon die too. Then we will hypocritically draw the curtain”]. Digi 24, September 26, 2018. https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/actualitate/avertismentul-unui-istoric-astazi-a-murit-ioan-ficior-curand-va-muri-si-visinescu-atunci-vom-trage-ipocrit-cortina-1003505.
   Google Scholar
• Digi24. 2022. “Traian Băsescu, declarat colaborator al Securității. Decizia ÎCCJ este definitivă. Băsescu: ‘Voi face demersurile legale la CEDO.’” [Traian Băsescu, declared a collaborator of the Securitate. The HCCJ’s decision is final. Basescu: “I will take legal action at the ECHR”]. Digi24, March 23, 2022. https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/actualitate/justitie/traian-basescu-verdict-definitiv-de-colaborare-cu-securitatea-iccj-1881425.
   Google Scholar
• Dobrin, A., and P. Varban. 2014. PICCJ. “Infracţiuni contra umanităţii. Punerea în mişcare a acţiunii penale.” [HCCJ. Crimes against humanity. Initiation of criminal proceedings]. Juridice, April 23, 2014. https://www.juridice.ro/319188/piccj-infractiuni-contra-umanitatii-punerea-in-miscare-a-actiunii-penale.html.
   Google Scholar
• Dongoroz, V. 1972. Explicatii Teoretice Ale Codului Penal Roman. [Theoretical Explanations of the Romanian Criminal Code]. Bucharest: Institutul de Cercetări Juridice.
   Google Scholar
• Dubiel, H., and G. Motzkin. 2004. The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. 2019. “European Parliament Resolution of 19 September 2019 on the Importance of European Remembrance for the Future of Europe. (2019/2819(RSP)).”
   Google Scholar
• France 24. 2008, October 24.EU recognizes historic Ukraine famine as ‘crime’. France 24. https://www.france24.com/en/20081024-eu-recognizes-historic-ukraine-famine-crime-ukraine-history.
   Google Scholar
• Gaita, R. 2005. “Refocusing genocide: A philosophical responsibility.” In Genocide and Human Rights, and J. K. Roth, 153–167. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect (GCR2P). 2020. “Q&A: The Gambia V. Myanmar, Rohingya Genocide at the International Court of Justice.” May 2020 Factsheet. Global R2P, May 21, 2020. https://www.globalr2p.org/publications/myanmarqav2/.
   Google Scholar
• Grosescu, R., and R. Ursachi. 2009. Justitia Penala de Tranzitie. De la Nürnberg la Postcomunismul Romanesc. [Transitional Justice. From Nürnberg to Romanian Postcommunism]. Iași: POLIROM.
   Google Scholar
• Gussi, A. 2017. “Paradoxes of Delayed Transitional Justice.” In Justice, Memory and Redress in Romania: New Insights, edited by L. Stan and L. Turcescu, 76–100. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Harff, B., and T. R. Gurr. 1988. “Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945.” International Studies Quarterly 32 (3): 359–371. https://doi.org/10.2307/2600447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, H. L. A. 1994. The Concept of Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, H. L. A. 2017. “Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals.” In Law and Morality, 63–99. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Honneth, A. 1996. The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Horne, C. 2020. “Trust and Transitional Justice.” In Encyclopedia of Transitional Justice, edited by L. Stan and N. Nedelsky, 252–259. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Huhn, W. R. 2002. “The Use and Limits of Deductive Logic in Legal Reasoning.” Santa Clara Law Review 42: 813–862.
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, L. 2022. “Cambodia’s Last Genocide Case Stands Dismissed.” UCANews, January 4, 2022. https://www.ucanews.com/news/cambodias-last-genocide-case-stands-dismissed/95585.
   Google Scholar
• Institutul de Investigare a Crimelor Comunismului și Memoria Exilului Românesc (IICCMER). 2013. Raport 2013.
   Google Scholar
• International Criminal Court. 1998. “Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.”
   Google Scholar
• International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). 2001. “The Prosecutor V. Jean-Paul Akayesu: Judgment.” Arusha, Tanzania: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.
   Google Scholar
• Laure, N. 2019. “Debating Communism at the European Institutions. By Laure Neumayer”. EUROM, December 20, 2019. https://europeanmemories.net/magazine/debating-communism-at-the-european-institutions/.
   Google Scholar
• LeBlanc, L. J. 1988. “The United Nations Genocide Convention and Political Groups: Should the United States Propose an Amendment.” Yale Journal of International Law 13 (2): 268–295.
   Google Scholar
• Letki, N. 2002. “Lustration and Democratization in east-central Europe.” Europe-Asia Studies 54 (4): 529–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668130220139154.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Library of Congress. n.d. “Croatia; International Court of Justice; Serbia: Judgment in a Case on the Application of the Convention on Genocide.” https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2015-02-06/croatia-international-court-of-justice-serbia-judgment-in-a-case-on-the-application-of-the-convention-on-genocide/.
   Google Scholar
• Livezeanu, I. n.d. “Transcript of the Closed “Trial” of Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu, December 1989.” Making the History of 1989. Item #690. https://chnm.gmu.edu/1989/items/show/690.
   Google Scholar
• Malcontent, P. A. M. 2016. Facing the Past: Amending Historical Injustices Through Instruments of Transitional Justice. Cambridge, UK: Intersentia.
   Google Scholar
• McConville, M., and W. H. Chui. 2017. Research Methods for Law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Memorialul Victimelor Comunismului şi al Rezistenţei. n.d. “Memorialul Victimelor Comunismului şi al Rezistenţei.” https://www.memorialsighet.ro/memorialul/.
   Google Scholar
• Mihaela, B. 2015. “Complicități și Tăceri Vinovate la IICCMER și AFDPR.” [Complicities and Guilty Silences at IICCMER and AFDPR]. În Linie Dreaptă, September 5, 2015. https://inliniedreapta.net/complicitati-si-taceri-vinovate-la-iiccmer-si-afdpr/.
   Google Scholar
• Nersessian, D. L. 2010. Genocide and Political Groups. USA: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nonet, P., and P. Selznick. 2017. Law & Society in Transition. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Palassis, S. 2008. “Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina V Serbia and Montenegro).” University of New South Wales Law Journal, The 31 (1): 80–106.
   Google Scholar
• Parnini, S. N. 2013. “The Crisis of the Rohingya as a Muslim Minority in Myanmar and Bilateral Relations with Bangladesh.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 33 (2): 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2013.826453.
   Google Scholar
• Pârvu, M.-P. 2019. “Lotul celor patru din CPEx: Ion Dincă, Tudor Postelnicu, Emil Bobu și Manea Mănescu. Primul mega-proces de după Revoluție.” [“The group of four from CPEx”: Ion Dincă, Tudor Postelnicu, Emil Bobu and Manea Mănescu. The first mega-process after the Revolution]. evz.ro, February 20, 2019. https://evz.ro/cpex-dinca-postelnicu-emil-bobu.html.
   Google Scholar
• Peck, T. J. W. 2020. “Genocide and Stigma: Exploring the Relationship between Legal Definitions and Societal Perceptions.” Exeter Law Review 45: 84–98.
   Google Scholar
• Philipps, L. 2010. “EU Rejects Eastern States’ Call to Outlaw Denial of Crimes by Communist Regimes.” The Guardian, December 21, 2010. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/21/european-commission-communist-crimes-nazism.
   Google Scholar
• Popovici, I. 2021. “Cu cercetarea comunismului, in sant. La IICCMER.” [With the research of communism, in the ditch. The IICCMER]. Adevarul, December 27, 2021. https://adevarul.ro/cultura/istorie/cu-cercetarea-comunismului-sant-iiccmer-1_61c96ad65163ec4271050ad1/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Preda, C. 2017. “The Role of Art in Dealing with the Communist Past.” In Justice, Memory and Redress in Romania: New Insights, edited by L. Stan and L. Turcescu, 166–192. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Procesele Comunismului. n.d. “De ce faptele trebuiau incadrate la genocid?” [Why the facts should have been labled as genocide?]. http://www.procesulcomunismului.com/marturii/fonduri/mmioc/curteasup/docs/0227geno.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Prosecutors’ office attached to the High Court of Cassation and Justice (PHCCJ). 2019. “Stadiu dosare privind crimele regimului comunist instrumentate de PÎCCJ.” [The stage of the files regarding the crimes of the communist regime investigated by the PÎCCJ]. https://www.mpublic.ro/ro/content/c_24-05-2019-12-05
   Google Scholar
• Radu, R. 2013. “After a Violent Revolution: Romanian Democratisation in the Early 1990s.” Central European Journal of International & Security Studies 7 (1): 104–123.
   Google Scholar
• Romanian Commission for the Analysis of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania. 2006. Final Report [Tismăneanu Report].
   Google Scholar
• Roth, J. K. 2005. Genocide and Human Rights. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Ruchinschi, D., A. Cașcaval, and P. Zoltan. 2005. “Groapa in care s-a aruncat securitatea.” [The pit in which the Securitate threw itself]. Jurnalul.ro, April 8, 2005. https://jurnalul.ro/special-jurnalul/groapa-in-care-s-a-pierdut-securitatea-47350.html.
   Google Scholar
• Rummel, R. J. 1997. Death by Government. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Rusan, R. n.d. “Geografia si Cronologia Gulagului romanesc” [The geography and the chronology of the Romanian Gulag]. Memorialul Victimelor comunismului si al Rezistentei. https://www.memorialsighet.ro/geografia-si-cronologia-gulagului-romanesc/.
   Google Scholar
• Schauer, E. J. 2012. “The Bone Woman: A Forensic Anthropologist’s Search for Truth in the Mass Graves of Rwanda, Bosnia, Croatia, and Kosovo.” Archivos de Criminología, Seguridad Privada y Criminalística 8: 8–9.
   Google Scholar
• Security Council Report. 2022. “In Hindsight: Challenging the Power of the Veto.” https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2022-05/in-hindsight-challenging-the-power-of-the-veto.php.
   Google Scholar
• Shafir, M. 2012. “Nürnberg II? Mitul denazificării şi utilizarea acestuia în martirologia competitivă Holocaust-Gulag”. [Nürnberg II?” The myth of denazification and its utilization in the martirology competition Holocaust-Gulag]. Echinox Journal. http://phantasma.lett.ubbcluj.ro/nurnberg-ii-mitul-denazificarii-si-utilizarea-acestuia-in-martirologia-competitiva-holocaust-gulag/.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, C. S. 2006. “Romanian Leader Condemns Communist Rule.” New York Times, December 19, 2006. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/19/world/europe/19romania.html.
   Google Scholar
• Stan, L. 2009. Prezentul Trecutului Recent. Lustratie si Decomunizare in postcomunism. [The Present of the Recent Past. Lustration and Decommunization in post-communism]. Bucharest: Curtea Veche Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Stan, L. 2013a. Transitional Justice in post-communist Romania: The Politics of Memory. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stan, L. 2013b. “Reckoning with the Communist past in Romania: A Scorecard.” Europe Asia Studies 65 (1): 127–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2012.698052.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton, J. R. 2001. Law/society: Origins, Interactions, and Change (Vol. 474). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
   Google Scholar
• Țimonea, D. 2022. “Mormântul de sub drum. Osemintele descoperite la Târgu Ocna i-ar putea aparţine lui Valeriu Gafencu, supranumit Sfântul Închisorilor.” [The grave under the road. Bones found at Targu Ocna could belong to Valeriu Gafencu, called “The Saint of Prisons”]. Adevarul, June 1, 2022. https://adevarul.ro/locale/alba-iulia/mormintele-patru-fosti-detinuti-politici-dezgropate-rapa-robilor-aiud-1_50aeb7697c42d5a6639f7cf9/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Toulmin, S. E. 2003. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Trebici, V. 1991. Genocid și Demografie. [Genocide and Demography]. Bucharest: Humanitas.
   Google Scholar
• Turcu, L. 2004. “Politrucii si securistii fac si azi cartile.” [Politrucians and the Securitate members still make the books today]. Jurnalul National, November 17, 2004. https://jurnalul.ro/special-jurnalul/politrucii-si-securistii-fac-si-azi-cartile-56787.html.
   Google Scholar
• UN General Assembly. 1948. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. vol. 78. New York: United Nations, Treaty Series.
   Google Scholar
• UNHR Council. 2018. Report of the Independent International fact-finding Mission on Myanmar. A/HRC/39/64.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2005. “UN Set of Principles for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights through Action to Combat Impunity.”
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. n.d. “When to Refer to a Situation as Genocide?” United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. 1–3. https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/publications-and-resources/GuidanceNote-When%20to%20refer%20to%20a%20situation%20as%20genocide.pdf. Guide Note 1.
   Google Scholar
• Uzonyi, G. 2020. “Genocide, Politicide, and Mass Atrocities against Civilian Populations.” Oxford Bibliographies, November 20, 2020. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199743292/obo-9780199743292-0188.xml.
   Google Scholar
• Van Schaack, B. 2017. “The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention’s Blind Spot.” In Genocide and Human Rights. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Wohlfahrt, I. 2004. “Worstward Ho: On Comparing Totalitarianism.” In The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices, edited by H. Dubiel and G. Motzkin, 35–73. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Žilinskas, J. 2009. “Broadening the Concept of Genocide in Lithuania’s Criminal Law and the Principle of Nullum Crimen Sine Lege.” Jurisprudencija 4: 333–348.
   Google Scholar
• Žilinskas, J. 2019. “Drėlingas V. Lithuania (ECHR): Ethno-Political Genocide Confirmed?”. EJIL:Talk!, April 15, 2019. https://www.ejiltalk.org/drelingas-v-lithuania-echr-ethno-political-genocide-confirmed/.
   Google Scholar