Abstract
The current study focuses on the utilization of Marble Waste Powder (MWP) as a partial substitution of cement along with local sand instead of microsilica sand in Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC). The aim was to reduce the environmental concerns of ECC by reducing the cement content without adversely affecting the desired properties. Four mixes were evaluated; the control mix which has no MWP and three test mixes having cement replacement with MWP by 10%, 15%, and 20% were used, respectively. The properties of ECC mixes were found in terms of compressive, tensile, and flexural characteristics. The trend of change in the basic properties of ECC with an increased percentage of MWP as partial substitution of cement was found along with the hypothesis test on the experimental data. From this study, it was concluded that the increased percentage of MWP reduces on the compressive strength of ECC. The maximum reduction in compressive strength of ECC was recorded as 49% with 20% replacement of cement with MWP, as compared to the control sample at 91 days of test age. The tensile strain of ECC increases with the increase in MWP content, while the tensile stress increases only with the increase of MWP content up to a specified limit. The ultimate load in the force–deflection curve first increases with the increase in MWP content up to a certain percentage, while upon further increase in MWP content from 15% to 20%, the ultimate load decreases. The study suggests that the properties do not vary significantly for the modified ECC samples containing MWP, especially the 10% and 15% MWP samples, and can be utilized instead of normal ECC, thus mitigating environmental concerns without compromising the ECC’s performance.
1. Introduction
Environmental degradation because of construction and industrialization (M. M. Rahman & Alam, Citation2022; Yao et al., Citation2020) has become a subject of great concern. The efficient usage of limited resources and recycling of waste products (Gul et al., Citation2021) to care about ecology and promote sustainable development are becoming challenging issues (De Schepper et al., Citation2014). Recycling and reuse of waste can be a step towards the production of more eco-friendly products with lower costs and lower usage of virgin natural resources (Z. Khan et al., Citation2021). Different types of waste materials such as fly ash (FA), marble waste, ceramic waste, plastic waste, paper waste, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and rubber waste have been used successfully in the past (Sambangi & Eluru, Citation2022; Tayyab et al., Citation2018; Thomas & Thomas, Citation2022). The disposal of these in the natural environment negatively affects the world ecosystem (A. J. Khan et al., Citation2021), such as adverse effects on land fertility, loss of flora and fauna, environmental pollution, and negative impact on human health (W. C. Li et al., Citation2016). Positive impacts of different wastes can be achieved with their effective utilization of the ecosystem and human living standards (Aravindh et al., Citation2022; W. Khan et al., Citation2018).
Concrete is one of the most profusely versatile construction materials in the world after water (Tunc, Citation2019). Effective incorporation of industrial waste in concrete has a dual positive effect (Kavya et al., Citation2022), firstly, the waste is utilized in concrete decreasing the burden on municipalities and secondly, the use of virgin ingredients in concrete can be decreased (Gul et al., Citation2021). Different research studies have shown a positive effect on concrete properties by the incorporation of industrial wastes (Jalal et al., Citation2019; G. Li & Zhao, Citation2003; Osborne, Citation1999; M. T. Rahman et al., Citation2020). Waste from marble is also one of the prominent wastes for which different efforts are made to utilize it efficiently (Sufian et al., Citation2021). Waste of marble is generated because of the cutting, sawing, and dressing of marble stones (Z. A. J. Khan et al., Citation2021). On average 30–40% of the processed marble in the factories corresponds to the generation of waste (Tunc, Citation2019) of (El-Gammal et al., Citation2011; Hamza et al., Citation2011).
Previous studies have shown that replacing 10% of cement with marble waste gives optimum compressive strength of concrete along with a general improvement in the overall mechanical performance of concrete (Aruntaş et al., Citation2010; Corinaldesi et al., Citation2010; Pathan & Pathan, Citation2014); Pathan. Along with the positive aspects of marble waste, the results indicate that the concrete provided with the waste of marble is approximately 15% cheaper as compared to conventional concrete (Uysal & Yilmaz, Citation2011). Due to the above-mentioned discussion regarding marble waste, the authors were motivated to use this waste in Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) as compared to the normal cementitious composites.
In the stress–strain relationship, ECC exhibits strain hardening similar to that of metals (Wang & Li, Citation2007)-cementitious composites (HPFRCC) (V. C. Li, Citation2008a). Strain softening results in a more confined single fracture plane, while HPFRCC manifests as a network of tiny fractures/cracks. After the initial crack in the ECC, the—ECC can have a fracture width of up to 100 mm and a crack spacing of 3–10 mm on average (V. C. Li, Citation2008b; Zhang et al., Citation2011). Standard concrete has a maximum allowable tensile strain of 0.01%, while ECC may reach up to 8%. Furthermore, ECC has about 300 times the tensile ductility of regular concrete (M. Li & Li, Citation2013; K. Yu et al., Citation2017). Al Martini et al. (Citation2023) examined the mechanical characteristics of concrete mixtures using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) from torn-down structures, with most of the mixes achieving the targeted results. The design of the ECC mix is based on energy and strength. These two requirements are crucial for achieving the ductile tensile strain hardening behavior associated with repeated cracking (V. C. Li et al., Citation1994). For ECC, the fibers and matrix are held together by a combination of frictional and chemical connections (Redon et al., Citation2001). For strain hardening, studies have revealed that a strong chemical link is not preferable, and a high frictional bond is also not preferable since it might lead to fiber rupture rather than pullout (Wang & Li, Citation2007). Because fiber pullout is more common than fiber rupture, the strength of fibers is underutilized due to the poor frictional connection (Yang & Li, Citation2010). To achieve the strain-hardening behavior that is the fundamental feature of HPFRCC, it is desirable in the design of ECC to have a low chemical bond and a moderate frictional bond.
The common types of fibers used in ECC are Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and Polyethylene (PE). As opposed to ECC constructed with PVA or PE fibers, PP fiber-reinforced composites are weak in tensile strength (Horikoshi et al., Citation2006). To make ECC with both high strength and ductility, PE fibers are used, but they are pricey compared to PVA fibers, hence they are rarely utilized in typical ECC. Therefore, in this research work, PVA-ECC is studied. The properties of ECC also depend on the size of the aggregate. Microsilica sand with an average size of 200 µm is typically utilized in ECC because a size more than 200 µm results in balling and clumping of ECC materials, which may drastically impair the mechanical characteristics of ECC (De Koker & Van Zijl, Citation2004; Fischer & Shuxin, Citation2003). Research shows that the ductility of ECC is unaffected by using coarser sand if the aggregates do not disrupt the distribution of the fibers (Sahmaran et al., Citation2009). Mostly, fly ash is used in ECC when using normal or coarse sand instead of microsilica sand. Saturated multiple cracking and narrow crack widths are enhanced by the presence of a high concentration of fly ash in ECC (J. H. Yu et al., Citation2010).
As reported, the marble waste does not have any cementitious properties in concrete (Aliabdo et al., Citation2014), but rather acts as a pozzolanic material like fly ash (Type F). Considering this property of marble waste, it can be effectively utilized as a partial substitution of cement in ECC, mitigating the chemical bond between the fiber and matrix and improving its mechanical properties. The replacement of cement with MWP in ECC has a positive effect on the environment by reducing the cement content and making the ECC economical as MWP is a freely available waste. The purpose of this research was to determine how the compressive, tensile, and flexural characteristics of PVA-ECC would change if cement were partially replaced with MWP as the binder and local sand were used instead of microsilica sand. The resulting ECC product will be economical and environmentally friendly.
2. Material acquisition and testing
2.1. Materials and their properties
ECC’s overall performance is impacted by the specific materials utilized in its production. Therefore, these materials should be characterized before incorporating into the mix. Portland cement conforming to ASTM C150 (Citation2020) was used in the ECC mix. The specific gravity of the local sand used as an aggregate in ECC was 2.67, while its gradation curve is given in Figure . The chemical composition of cement, fly ash, and MWP, along with their specific gravities, is given in Table . The MWP was collected from an open marble waste dumping site located in Peshawar, Pakistan, as can be seen in Figure . The chemical composition of fly ash indicates that it is of Type F, compliance with ASTM C618 (Citation2019), which is desirable because of its non-cementitious and pozzolanic properties. The parameters of the PVA fibers used are listed in Table . The fibers are Kuralon PVA fibers REC 15 × 8 and were manufactured by Kuraray Asia Pacific (Pvt) Ltd. High-range water reducing admixture (HRWR) was used in addition to water to achieve a workable mix.
Figure 1. Gradation curve of local sand.
Figure 2. Open dumping of marble waste and flowing slurry in Peshawar, Pakistan.
Table 1. Properties of binder materials
Table 2. Properties of PVA fibers
2.2. Mix proportions
A total of four mixes were prepared. The first one was the control mix, and the other three were modified mixes having a gradual increase in the MWP content, replacing cement. The fiber content was kept at 1% by volume. The mix proportions and their designations are given in Table . The MWP contents used in the modified mixes were 10%, 15%, and 20%. The 5% content of MWP in the ECC was not considered because a small percentage of MWP will not substantially affect the environment or economic aspects, rather complicating the production of ECC by introducing a new ingredient. In this study, the maximum percentage of MWP was limited to 20% because, upon further increase of MWP content, there is a noteworthy decrease in the content of cement, which as documented in the previous research, would reduce the ECC’s compressive strength if cement is replaced with fly ash or MWP in a high proportion (Pan et al., Citation2015)
Table 3. Mix proportions of ECC
2.3. Specimen preparation and curing
Cement, sand, fly ash, and MWP were all combined in a dry condition during the mixing process. After the combination of the dry ingredients, water was added, and the mix was given a good stir. HRWR was added after the achievement of a well-mixed product of ingredients. After mixing for a few minutes, a workable mixture was developed, in which PVA fibers were added and well mixed to produce a consistent ECC paste. Specimens of dog-bone, beam, and cylinder were prepared from the ECC mixed paste.
The compressive strength of ECC was determined by casting and testing cylinders with a diameter of 4 inches (101.6 mm) and a height of 8 inches (203.2 mm). The cylinders were tested at 14, 28, 56, and 91 days for studying the strength development with the age of ECC. Beams measuring 14“ (355.6 mm) × 4” (101.6 mm) × 4” (101.6 mm) (L × W × H) were constructed for both the control and test groups to determine flexural strength at 28 days of age. To determine the direct tensile strength of the ECC, dog bone samples were produced in accordance with the standards set out by the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) for the design and construction of HPFRCC. Sample dog bone dimensions are shown in Figure . At the age of 28 days, the dog bone samples were tested. A total of 80 cylinders, 20 dog bones, and 20 beam members were cast, indicating 5 samples were tested for each trial.
Figure 3. Dog bone dimensions for direct tensile testing (unit, cm).
2.4. Test setup
Compressive strength testing was performed on the cylinders at 14, 28, 56, and 91 days of age (ASTM C39, Citation2020). Proper capping of cylinders was done according to ASTM C617, A (Citation2020) before testing. The dog bone samples were tested at 28 days of age. The gauge length was kept at 80 mm. The loading rate of the UTM was kept at 0.1 mm/min. The flexural capacity of the beam members was tested under four-point loading according to ASTM C78 (Citation2020) and can be seen in Figure . The span length of the beam was 12 inches (304.8 mm).
Figure 4. Four-point loading arrangement for the beams.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Compressive properties
Table and Figure present the compressive strength of cylinders made with control mix and cement-replaced mixes. The results indicate that the cylinders’ compressive strength decreases when MWP concentration increases in the mix. The decrease in the cement content and its replacement with MWP having no cementitious properties have reduced the compressive strength, and this trend is similar in result to previous literature in which the compressive strength decreased as cement was replaced with high content of fly ash (Pan et al., Citation2015; Sahmaran et al., Citation2009). The decrease in the compressive strength became significant as the MWP content increased from 15% to 20%. The compressive strength at 91 days for M20 was approximately 29.7% less than that of M15. The strength development in the ECC mixes is more gradual as compared to the normal concrete, and even after 28 days, the strength development is significant for all the mixes, which is due to the high content of retarding pozzolanic materials, i.e., fly ash and MWP in the binder of the ECC. The primary type of failure pattern in the cylinders for all mixes was a shear failure, in which the fibers tried to stop the propagation of the shear crack/cracks, as can be seen in Figure .
Figure 5. Compressive strength of ECC cylinders at various ages.
Figure 6. Failure pattern in the cylinder under compression load.
Table 4. Compressive strength of cylinders
3.2. Tensile properties
The peak stress and strain values for the samples tested are presented in Table . The average stress–strain relationship graph for the mixes is presented in Figure . It is found that the peak tensile strength increases with the increase in the MWP content. Upon increasing from 10% of MWP content, the peak tensile strength decreased gradually and was minimum for M20. The first increase in tensile strength is due to the lower chemical bond between the fibers and the matrix because of a decrease in the cement content of ECC. Upon further increase in the MWP, the cement content decreased significantly, causing weak bonding in the ECC matrix which can be seen in Figure that the tensile strength of M20 is the least among all the mixes. The tensile strain capacity increased with the increase in the MWP content. The tensile strain was 2.43%, 2.86%, 3.14%, and 4.15% for CS, M10, M15, and M20, respectively. M20 has the maximum tensile strain with an increase of 70.8% compared to the control sample.
Figure 7. Average stress–strain relationship under direct tensile test.
Table 5. Tensile strength and strain results of samples tested
3.3. Flexural properties
The peak load and maximum mid-span deflection for the samples tested are presented in Table and Figure . The pattern was somewhat similar to the tensile strength results; the peak load sustained by the beams first increased with increased content of MWP. The maximum peak load was sustained by M15. Upon further increase in MWP content from 15% to 20%, a significant decrease in the peak load was observed, as can be seen in Figure . The first increase in the peak load is due to the positive effect of MWP on the ECC enhancing its strain-hardening behavior. Upon increasing the MWP content from 15% to 20%, although the strain capacity of ECC was enhanced but due to a significant decrease in the compressive strength, the peak load taken by the M20 beam was minimum among all the mixes. The stiffness of the beam can be represented by the slope of the load–deflection curve. The milder slope of the load–deflection curve of M20 as can be seen in Figure shows that the stiffness of the beam decreases as the MWP is increased from 15% to 20%. The mid-span deflection increased with the increase in the MWP content, with M20 having the maximum mid-span deflection of 1.918 mm. The pattern of failure of beams is shown in Figure . The beams failed in flexure with a large crack near the middle span accompanied by several small cracks. The flexure strength-to-tensile strength ratio was 2.00, 2.01, 2.28, and 1.34 for CS, M10, M15, and M20, respectively, indicating the strain-hardening behavior of a material. For brittle materials, the flexure strength is approximately equal to the tensile strength, while the ratio of the flexure strength to the tensile strength increases as a material shows ductile behavior (Maalej & Li, Citation1994).
Figure 8. Average load–deflection curve.
Figure 9. Failure pattern on the bottom face of the beams for M20 mix.
Table 6. Peak load and mid-span deflection results of four-point bending test
4. Statistical analysis
Data gathered from compression, tension, and flexure tests were used in one-sided hypothesis testing with a significance level of 0.05 (5%) (Montgomery & Runger, Citation2010). The result of the hypothesis testing of the compressive, tensile, and flexural strength testing are presented in Tables , and Table respectively.The findings tended to support the notion that compressive strength would decrease with increasing MWP concentration. For tensile strength, it is not possible to reject the null hypothesis that CS=M10 and CS = M15. However, at M10>M20 the increase in strain is true with the increase in MWP content, therefore, the hypothesis that tensile strain increases with the increase in MWP content can be accepted. Hypothesis for the trends of flexural parameters, i.e., strength and maximum mid-span deflection, can be accepted. For mid-span deflection the null hypothesis CS=M10 cannot be fully rejected.
Table 7. Hypothesis testing results for compressive test
Table 8. Hypothesis of tensile testing results
Table 9. Hypothesis of flexural testing results
5. Assessment for environmental impact
The environmental impact of a material can be judged based on the material sustainability indicators which are calculated based on the energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and waste generated during the material preparation for construction purposes. The environmental impact of the mixes prepared in this study was based on CO2 emission. The CO2 emission for the individual materials is presented in Table . As MWP is a process waste which is openly dumped and sun dried, CO2 emission is considered as zero for MWP (Singh et al., Citation2020). Figure presents the CO2 emission for the mixes developed in this study. The CO2 emission for mix M20 is the lowest, while it is highest for the control mix.
Figure 10. CO2 emission for ECC mixes.
Table 10. CO2 emission for individual constituent
6. Conclusions
The current study focuses on the utilization of Marble Waste Powder (MWP) as a partial substitution of cement along with local sand instead of microsilica sand in Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC). Four mixes, including the control mix with no MWP and three test mixes with cement replacement with MWP by 10%, 15%, and 20% were tested. The replacement of cement with MWP in ECC has a positive impact on the environment by reducing the cement content and making the ECC economical as MWP is a freely available waste. The purpose of this research was to determine how the compressive, tensile, and flexural characteristics of PVA-ECC would change if cement were partially replaced with MWP as the binder and local sand were used instead of microsilica sand. Based on the results of this experimental study, the following conclusions are made:
The test results showed that increasing MWP content in PVA-ECC and decreasing the cement content have an adverse effect on compressive strength. A maximum compressive strength was observed for the control mix and a minimum for M20, i.e., having the highest content of MWP replacing cement, with a decrease of approximately 49% at 91 days as compared to the control mix. The strength development in ECC is also more gradual than in normal concrete. A considerable percentage of increase in compressive strength was observed even after 28 days of age for all mixes.
The tensile test result showed that by increasing the MWP content, the tensile strain increases favoring the strain hardening behavior of ECC, with an increase of 17.7%, 29.2%, and 70.7% for M10, M15, and M20, respectively, as compared to the control mix. The M20 mix had a maximum strain of 4.15%, while the increase in MWP content first increases the tensile strength, but after increasing from 10% of MWP content to 15% and 20%, the tensile strength decreases by 11.1% and 18.5%, respectively, as compared to M10.
The bending test result of a beam under four-point loading showed that while increasing the MWP content, the mid-span deflection increased, with an increase of 0.46%, 15%, and 28.1% for M10, M15, and M20, respectively, as compared to the control mix. The peak load was observed for the M15 mix, while upon a further increase in the MWP content, the peak load decreases considerably by 45.4% for M20 as compared to M15.
The results of the environmental impact assessment in terms of CO2 emission showed that increasing the MWP content and replacing cement has a positive impact on the environment, leading toward producing more sustainable ECC. The CO2 emission is 23.1%, 34.7%, and 46.3% lower for M10, M15, and M20, respectively, as compared to the control mix.
From the current study and test results, it can be concluded that the ratio M10 and M15 have the potential to be used as a proper ECC mix, considering its superior tensile and flexure properties compared to the control mix.
The current study only used 1% of PVA fibers in the ECC mix. Different percentages of PVA fibers can be tested, such as for 1.5% and 2% for the ECC containing MWP. Flexural and tensile tests were performed only for 28 days of age; therefore, in future research studies, the modified ECC samples can be tested for extended test ages. The effect of curing conditions can be studied in detail as the excess MWP causes expansion in concrete. These modified ECC samples can be checked for soundness issues in the long run.
Highlights
Partial replacement of cement with marble waste powder in ECC will make concrete eco-friendly.
Using local sand instead of microsilica sand for the production of ECC is a step towards affordable ECC product.
Mechanical property assessment of ECC made with the increased percentage of MWP is necessary before its practical implementation.
MWP utilization as a partial replacement of cement is up to a certain percentage in the production of a more environment friendly ECC.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Additional information
Funding
References
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