Rotation work in the resources sector: a systematic review of the impact on workers’ families

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flow diagram of identifying and selecting studies for the systematic review.

Table 1. Summary of studies characteristics and quantitative findings for partners.

Author (methodological quality)	Funding source	Study design	Aim/objective	Study population/ setting and industry	Health outcome/ Phenomenon	Measurements/analysis plan	Summary of findings	Take away message
Cooke et al. (2019) (High)	None Declared	Cross-sectional survey	To compare the levels of stress experienced by pregnant women whose partners FIFO and whose partners did not work away.	394 families in a pregnancy cohort; 77 FIFO families; 100% female; mean age 29.79 ± 5.10yrs Country: Australia Industry: General FIFO	Depression, anxiety and stress; Alcohol	Beck Depression Inventory II BDI; Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory STAI; Perceived Stress Scale; List of Threatening Experiences checklist. Analysis plan: ANOVA	No difference between women with FIFO partners and women with non-FIFO partners (regular and irregular schedules) for depression (8.41 ± 4.64 vs 7.37 ± 4.33 & 8.09 ± 4.57; p = 0.169), anxiety (35.55 ± 11.04 vs 34.79 ± 10.17 & 36.08 ± 10.59; p = 0.955), perceived stress (23.13 ± 8.64 vs 21.10 ± 7.27 & 22.10 ± 8.00; p = 0.137), and alcohol/drug problems (11% vs 6% & 12%; p = 0.188). Women’s perceived stress high when partner work FIFO (β=-1.944; 95%CI=-3.51, −0.38, p = 0.015).	Partners of rotation work showed similar levels of depression, anxiety and stress and alcohol use as partners of non-rotation workers.
Dittman et al. (2016) (High)	University/research institution	Cross-sectional survey	To examine the impact of Fly-In/Fly-Out (FIFO), on children and families	232 FIFO partners & 294 non-FIFO partners; mean age 36.32 ± 6.13 years. Country: Australia; Industry: General FIFO	Depression, Anxiety, stress; Alcohol	DASS-21; Alcohol AUDIT; Analysis plan: ANCOVA; Pearson’s correlations and Hierarchical multiple	Depression (3.63 ± 4.57 vs 2.48 ± 3.67; p < 0.001), anxiety (2.00 ± 3.12 vs 1.37 ± 2.35; p < 0.01), stress (5.69 ± 4.90 vs 4.52 ± 4.03; p < 0.01), and worries about partner’s wellbeing (2.45 ± 2.12 vs 1.81 ± 1.92; p < 0.001) higher in FIFO partners than non-FIFO partners. No difference in alcohol use between FIFO partners and non-FIFO partners.	Partners of rotation work showed higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress than in partners of non-rotation work, but alcohol use was similar in both groups.
Lester et al. (2015) (Medium)	Western Australian Health Promotion Foundation (Healthway)	Mixed method study (Cross-sectional study)	To explore the parenting patterns of families exposed to the fly-in–fly-out (FIFO) work pattern in raising adolescent children,	23 at home parents with FIFO partners, 23 FIFO workers; Age 30 years and over. Country: Australia; Industry: General FIFO	Mental health	assessed by K10 assessed partner’s mental health; Analysis plan: Kruskall–Wallis non-parametric tests	More FIFO partners (32%) had very high levels of psychological distress than general population (2.6%). FIFO partners psychological distress was not related with FIFO work roster (p = 0.093).	Partners showed high levels of psychological distress.
Morrice et al. (1985) (Low)	Social Science Research Council	Mixed method study (Cross-sectional study)	To examine the prevalence Intermittent Husband Syndrome	200 offshore wives and 103 on-shore wives; mean age 31.7 yrs. Setting: UK Industry: offshore oil and gas	General health; Anxiety, depression and intermittent husband syndrome	General Household Survey (GHS) Symptom lists and Zuckerman Adjective Checklist. Analysis plan: NR	Partners self-reported general health was good and similar to onshore wives and general population. Anxiety and depression higher when husband is absence (10 cases) than presence (2 cases); 10% presented with ‘‘Intermittent Husband Syndrome’’ characterized by change in mood and behaviours	Partners show good general health status, but showed high cases of anxiety/depression in the absence of workers
Parkes et al. (2005) (Medium)	UK Health and Safety Executive	Mixed method study (Cross-sectional survey)	To explore spouses’ perceptions of offshore lifestyles	245 respondents; aged 22 to 59 yrs. Setting: UK; Industry: offshore oil and gas	Psychological wellbeing	Self-develop questionnaire. Analysis plan: descriptive statistics (t-test)	Large proportion of partners (58.5%) reported problems including concerns/worries about workers’ safety (84.4%), loneliness (66.4%), difficulties adjusting to intermittent absence (58.9%), and coping with domestic emergencies (57.4%).	A large proportion of partners have high levels of anxiety, loneliness and difficulties adopting/coping with the absence of workers.
Rebar et al. (2018) (High)	LIVIN Australia	Longitudinal diary study	To compare health behaviours between on-shift and off-shift periods	42 FIFO partners; mean age 38.58 ± 9.22 years Country: Australia; Industry: General FIFO	Health behaviours and wellbeing (sleep and nutrition quality, alcohol intake, smoking, physical activity and relaxation time, and medication for physical and mental problems)	Self-developed online diary for 7 consecutive days each on- and off-shift. Analysis plan: Multilevel models	Partners tended to have poorer nutrition (γ= −0.17 (−0.33 to −0.02), sleep quality (γ= −0.56; 95%CI= −0.72 to −0.40), less exercise time (γ= −10.78; 95%CI= −0.36 to −0.00) and less relaxation time (γ= −1.22; 95%CI= −1.87 to −0.61) during on-shift days than off-shift days. Partners drank significantly less alcohol than workers (γ= −0.91; 95%CI= −1.50 to −0.26) and drink less alcohol during on-shift than off-shift days (γ= −1.12; 95%CI= −1.48 to −0.76). Partners smoke significantly more during on-shift than off-shift days (γ = 24.20; 95%CI = 0.86 to 45.88). Medication use for mental and physical health impairments were not common, but partners took more physical health medication during on-shift days than off-shift days (γ = 1.44; 95%CI = 0.36 to 2.54).	Partners show poorer nutrition and sleep quality, less exercise and relaxation time, and smoked more in the absences of workers; but drink more in the presence of workers.
Taylor et al. (1985) (Low)	Social Science Research Council	Cross-sectional survey	To examine the psycho-social effects on wives of their husbands’ intermittent absence on offshore oil rigs	200 wives of offshore oil workers; mean age 31.7 years. Country: UK; industry: offshore oil and gas	Anxiety and depression; Perceived health status, perceived sleep pattern	The Zuckerman Adjective Checklist, General Household survey checklist. Analysis plan: Not reported	Self-reported health status was good (61%) and similar to onshore wives (59%) and general population. Similar proportions of offshore wives and wives in general population (18% vs 16%) reported nervy, tense and depressed symptoms. Higher anxiety ‘caseness’ in offshore wives when partners are away (10 cases) than onshore wives (0 cases). High stress in offshore wives was associated with married for less than 5 years (p < 0.05), wife working outside the home (p < 0.01), no previous experience of husband absence (p < 0.05), having at least one pre-school child (p < 0.05) and irregular work pattern of husband (p < 0.05).	Partners general health status was good, but showed high cases of anxiety in the absence of the workers.
Wilson et al. (2020) (High)	None Declared	Cross-sectional survey	To describe and compare partners’ sleep problems and loneliness when the FIFO/DIDO workers were at home and away	199 partners of the FIFO/DIDO Workers; 74.9% aged 18–44yrs; Country: Australia; Industry: mining	Sleepiness, sleep duration and quality, and loneliness	The Epworth Sleepiness Scale; The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) (score > 5= poor sleep quality); UCLA Loneliness Scale. Analysis plan: Repeated-measures ANCOVA	Sleep quality was poorer when worker is away than present at home (8.8 ± 3.1 vs 7.8 ± 3.3; p = 0.001). No difference in partners’ sleep duration (m = 7.2 ± 1.5 vs 6.9 ± 1.6; p = 0.486) and sleepiness (m = 15 ± 4.1 vs 15.4 ± 4.6; p = 0.960) when workers are at home than when workers are away. High loneliness when workers are away than at home (m = 27.9 ± 6.4 vs 22.2 ± 6.2; p < 0.001). Short sleep duration, poor sleep quality, excessive sleepiness and extreme loneliness in FIFO partners than general population.	Partners showed shorter sleep duration, poorer sleep quality, excessive sleepiness and extreme loneliness in FIFO partners than general population whether the workers is present at home or away

Table 2. Summary of studies characteristics and qualitative findings for partners.

Author (methodological quality)	Funding source	Study design	Aim/objective	Study population/ setting and industry	Health outcome/ Phenomenon	Measurements/analysis plan	Summary of findings	Take away message
Gardner et al. (2018) (High)	LIVIN (Australia)	Qualitative study	To investigate how workers and their partners negotiate the impact of fly-in fly-out (FIFO) on their mental health and well-being	26 conveniently selected partners of FIFO workers; mean age 40 ± 9 yrs; Country: Australia Industry: General FIFO	Mental health and wellbeing	Open ended questions via email. Analysis plan: Thematic analysis	FIFO work imposes the sense of living two lives, which comes with the difficulties of adjusting to the differences and pace of the domestic and work lives, and create tension and frustrations; Some partners indicated being trapped in undesired job by high wages. Partners reported worries of sole parenting and about the absence of FIFO worker on the wellbeing of children; FIFO puts strain on relationships due to physical and psychological distance leading to disconnect and tension; Partners feel emotional strains and worried about workers’ physical and mental health	Rotation work impact was generally described as having a negative impact on the psychological well-being of at-home partners
Mayes (2020) (Medium)	None declared	Qualitative study	To examine how FIFO workers’ rhythms of physical absence and presence in family life shape the everyday mobilities and temporalities of their emplaced spouses	20 women FIFO partners; aged 22–59 years. Country: Australia. Industry: mining	Psychological wellbeing	In-depth, semi-structured interviews	Partners experience “living two separate lifestyles” with disruption to routine life leading to recurrent tension. Increase burden of sole parenting in the absence of workers, limiting the social mobility of partners with young children. Some partners experience weekends in the absence of workers as ‘depressing’ and ‘lonely’ and tended to social isolate by avoiding places (e.g. parks, homes of non-FIFO families). Some partners without children get free time to socialise with others in the absence of the workers.	Partners show negative impact of rotation work on their psychological well-being
Morrice et al. (1985) (Low)	Social Science Research Council	Mixed method study (Qualitative study)	To explore nature of the stresses and the adaptation in Intermittent Husband Syndrome	30 wives and 17 Husband; Country: UK Industry: offshore oil and gas	Intermittent Husband Syndrome	Extensive interview. Analysis plan: Thematic analysis	Some wives have adapted successfully to husband absence lifestyle and found it a preferable way of life; take advantage of husband’s absences to increase their own competence and to enlarge their network of relationships. Other partners experienced distress and felt miserable; Partners reported feeling of loneliness when husband is away; overburden of single parenting and domestic chores; intermittent readaptation to home life by workers bring tension and domestic conflict; experience of worries/anxiety before husband leave for work tour; disruption of family life as partners feel neglected and separated from husband when at home	Partners show mixed impact of rotation work on their psychological well-being
Parkes et al. (2005) (Medium)	UK Health and Safety Executive	Mixed method study (Qualitative study)	To examine the perceptions, attitudes, and concerns of the spouses of offshore workers	39 telephone interviews; aged 22 to 59 yrs. Country: UK; Industry: offshore oil and gas	Psychological wellbeing	Telephone interview, and self-reported measure. Thematic analysis	Difficulties adjusting to the lifestyle of presence and absence of workers (‘‘living two lives’’) characterised by irritation and tension; intermittent absence and presence leads to role conflicts and disruption to ‘single life’ leading to tension and irritation; experience of anxiety and tension prior to worker leaving home (stressfulness caused by sense of worker leaving home for work); experience loneliness and anxiety associated with bringing up children alone. Partners develop greater independence, personal confidence, and coping ability; becoming self-reliance in the absence of workers.	Partners show mixed impact of rotation on their psychological well-being.
Pini and Mayes (2012) (Medium)	None declared	Qualitative study	To explore the emotional life of fly‑in fly‑out (FIFO) workers and their families	513 posts on Mining Families Matters website from February 2010 to December 2011;Age: NR Country: Australia Industry: General FIFO	Psychological wellbeing	Posts on Mining Families Matters website. Analysis plan: Thematic analysis	Feeling ‘independent, resourceful, strong and sometime unemotional’ by long/experienced FIFO partners. FIFO provides the chance to make new friends and increase social network. Experience emotions of sadness, ‘loneliness and despair’ by some partners. Emotional experiences of ‘loss, loneliness and uncertainty’ was linked to having younger children and new to the FIFO lifestyle. Tensions between women’s expression of pride in their emotional strength and the need to temper this capacity when FIFO men returned home. Anxiety with becoming ‘too independent’ among new FIFO partners	Partners showed mixed impact of rotation on their psychological well-being
Silva-Segovia and Salinas-Meruane (2016) (High)	Comisión nacional de investigación Científica y Tecnológica; Fondecyt projects	Qualitative study	To explore the emotional adjustments and imbalances experienced by female partners of Chilean mining workers	Six women between the ages of 30 and 56, with 1–4 children. Country: Chile Industry: Mining	Emotional adjustments and imbalances	In-depth interview. Analysis plan: Thematic analysis with Critical Discourse Analysis	Family modify daily routine to suit worker’s routine of working, resting or recreational times, creating tension and feelings of frustration, resentment, and unsatisfied demands in family. Partners experience tension caused by suspicion of infidelity and disruption to sexual intimacy	Partners experienced a negative impact of rotation on their emotional well-being
Whalen and Schmidt (2016) (High)	None declared	Qualitative study	To explore the lived experiences of women whose partners commute to the Alberta oil sands for work	8 partners of LDC workers; age 37–50yrs; Country: Canada; Industry: mining/petroleum	Psychological wellbeing;	Interviews; Analysis plan: Thematic analysis	Partner reported increased workload of look after children and work outside of home, feelings loneliness and loss of companionship in the absence of workers; some partners expressed nervousness about workers job security; some partners develop sense of control and empowerment regarding family decision-making. Some partners indicated the sense of high financial rewards help them cope with rough patches in the absence of workers.	Partners and children experienced mixed impact of rotation work on their psychological well-being

Table 3. Summary of studies characteristics and quantitative findings for children.

Author (methodological quality)	Funding source	Study design	Aim/objective	Study population/ setting and industry	Health outcome/ Phenomenon	Measurements/analysis plan	Summary of findings	Take away message
Dittman et al. (2016) (High)	University/research institution	Cross-sectional survey	To examine the impact of Fly-In/Fly-Out (FIFO), on children and families	232 FIFO partners & 294 non-FIFO partners; mean age 36.32 ± 6.13 years. Country: Australia; Industry: General FIFO	Children behaviour and Emotional difficulties	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale (CAPES) Analysis plan: ANCOVA; Pearson’s correlations and Hierarchical multiple	No difference in behavioural (19.83 ± 11.84 vs 18.36 ± 9.88) and emotional (3.25 ± 2.60 vs 2.87 ± 2.61) difficulties between children in FIFO families and children in non-FIFO families (p > 0.05). Poor parental emotional adjustment (β = 0.22; p < 0.01), lower weekly work hours (β=-0.16; p < 0.01) and perceived rotation work lifestyle negative impact on family (β = 0.18; p < 0.01) predicted children’s behaviour problems in FIFO families. Poor parental emotional adjustment (β = 0.19; p < 0.001) and perceived rotation work lifestyle negative impact on family (β = 0.34; p < 0.01) predicted emotional problems	Children of rotation work showed similar levels of behaviour and emotional difficulties as children in non-FIFO families. Parent worker’s long working hours, and poor emotional adjustment were associated with children’s emotions and behaviours
Kaczmarek and Sibbel (2008) (High)	None declared	Cross-sectional survey	To examine the effects of employment-related father absence on children’s psychological well-being and perceptions of family functioning	90 primary school aged children and their mothers (30 FIFO children & mothers; mean age 10.16 ± 1.29 years. Country: Australia; Industry: General FIFO	Depression; Anxiety	Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI); Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS). Analysis plan: ANOVA	No difference between children of FIFO families and children from non-FIFO families for depression [M = 7.60 ± 5.60 vs 5.00 ± 3.66; F(2,81)=03.68, p = 0.02], anxiety [M = 11.00 ± 6.77 vs 8.12 ± 6.07; F(2,81)=.76, p = 0.18] and general functioning [M = 1.87 ± 0.42 vs 1.82 ± 0.38; F(2,81)=0.91, p = 0.41]; were within the healthy functioning limits.	Children of rotation work showed healthy levels of depression, anxiety and general functioning similar to children of non-rotation workers.
Lester et al. (2015) (Medium)	Western Australian Health Promotion Foundation (Healthway)	Mixed method study (Cross-sectional study)	To explore the parenting patterns of families exposed to the fly-in–fly-out (FIFO) work pattern in raising adolescent children,	41 adolescent children of FIFO parents; Age: 0–24; Country: Australia; Industry: General FIFO	Mental health	Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to assessed adolescent mental health. Analysis plan: Kruskall–Wallis non-parametric tests	Few adolescents from FIFO homes (2%) showed mental health concerns, compared to Australian norms (10%). Adolescent mental health was not related with FIFO parent’s work roster (p = 0.507). 73% adolescents reported no emotional difficulties	Adolescent children showed low levels of mental health and emotional difficulties
Lester et al. (2016) (High)	None declared	Cross-sectional study	To explore the mediation of parental presence and family connectedness on the association between fly-in fly-out employment and adolescent well-being	618 students; Age: NR; Country: Australia Industry: General FIFO	Depression; Emotional and Behavioural difficulties	DASS-21; Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Analysis plan: Multilevel mediation	More adolescents of FIFO parents reported significantly mild (7.4% vs 6.2%), moderate (9.1% vs 6.9%) and severe (3.0% vs 2.8%) depressive symptoms (p = 0.02) and emotional and behavioural difficulties (9.6% vs 7.5%; p = 0.02) compared to adolescent from non-FIFO families. Greater parental presence predicted lower depressive symptoms (β=-0.16; p < 0.01) and emotional and behavioural problems (β=-0.17; p < 0.01). Greater family connectedness predicted lower depressive symptoms (β=-0.11; p < 0.01) and emotional and behavioural problems (β=-0.11; p < 0.01)	Adolescent children of rotation workers had higher levels of depressive symptoms and emotional and behavioural difficulties than children of non-rotation workers.
Robinson et al. (2017) (Low)	None declared	Cross-sectional survey	To examine the relationships between the working arrangements of mineworkers and behavioural issues in their children	1961 partners and 1798 mineworkers Age: NR Country: Australia Industry: Mining	Child’s emotions and behaviours	SDQ assessed parent perception of child’s emotions and behaviours. Analysis plan: Pearson correlation	Parent working excessive hours related with hyperactivity behaviour (r = 0.108; p < 0.001), emotional (r = 0.128; p < 0.001), conduct (r = 0.108; p < 0.01) and peer problems (r = 0.090; p < 0.001). Parental emotional exhaustion was related with hyperactivity behaviour (r = 0.109; p < 0.001), emotional (r = 0.174; p < 0.001), conduct (r = 0.116; p < 0.01) and peer problems (r = 0.158; p < 0.001). Parental tiredness associated with hyperactivity behaviour (r = 0.115; p < 0.001), emotional (r = 0.141; p < 0.001), conduct (r = 0.080; p < 0.01) and peer problems (r = 0.106; p < 0.001). Parental sleep disruption associated with emotional (r=-0.147; p < 0.01), conduct (r=-0.079; p < 0.05) and peer problems (r=-0.080; p < 0.05).	Parent worker’s long working hours, emotional exhaustion, and sleep disruption were associated with children’s emotions and behaviours. However, all associations were small in size.
Zargham-Boroujeni et al. (2015) (High)	None declared	Cross-sectional survey	To assess anxiety in children of offshore staff	160 students (64 offshore staff’s children; mean age 9.83 ± 0.16yrs. Country: Iran; Industry: offshore oil and gas	Anxiety	Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Inventory. Analysis plan: t-test and logistic regression tests	Offshore staff’s children significantly experienced anxiety (56.2%) than based staff’s children (32.3%) (p = 0.03). Parent working offshore increased children’s anxiety by 2 times (AOR = 2.140; 95%CI = 1.001–4.576, p = 0.049)	Children of rotation workers show higher anxiety than children of non-rotation workers

Table 4. Summary of studies characteristics and qualitative findings for children.

Author (methodological quality)	Funding source	Study design	Aim/objective	Study population/ setting and industry	Health outcome/ Phenomenon	Measurements/analysis plan	Summary of findings	Take away message
MacBeth and Sibbel (2012) (High)	None declared	Qualitative study	To understand the lived experiences of adolescent boys whose fathers were currently employed in a FIFO	8 adolescent males, aged 13 to 21 years Country: Australia Industry: General FIFO	Psychological Wellbeing	Semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis	FIFO provide high financial benefits and enough free days to spend and socialised with dad during the leave period. Adolescents expressed feeling relaxed and less stressful when dad is away as they have the freedom and can have friends come over	Rotation work impact was generally positive on the psychological well-being of adolescent males
Mauthner et al. (2000) (Medium)	Economic and Social Research Council	Qualitative study	To explore children’s accounts of parental work and the work ± family interface	33 children (10 from offshore family & 23 onshore family); aged 8–12 yrs; 22 girls. Country: UK Industry: oil and gas	Children behaviour and emotions	Focus group discussion; Thematic analysis	Children reported getting annoyed seeing their mothers do their father’s house chores and also get upset by father missing special family events and feel hurt by parent absence. Some children worry/anxious about the safety of their father when away at work. Children sometimes feel happy being able to avoid parents taking out their frustration on them or punishment in the absence of their fathers. Offshore children reported seeing their fathers more (during leave days) than onshore office workers children, but miss their father when away at work and would want to see them more often	Children show mixed psychological well-being, and behaviour and emotions
Parkes et al. (2005) (Medium)	UK Health and Safety Executive	Mixed method study (Qualitative study)	To examine the perceptions, attitudes, and concerns of the spouses of offshore workers	39 telephone interviews; aged 22 to 59 yrs. Country: UK; Industry: offshore oil and gas	Psychological wellbeing	Telephone interview, and self-reported measure. Thematic analysis	Children get to spend enough time with parents during leave period. Some children become independent and resilient whereas some develop emotional strain and rejection behaviour to workers (missing parent and feeling upset by absence of parent)	Rotation work showed a mixed impact on the behaviour and emotions of children
Whalen and Schmidt (2016) (High)	None declared	Qualitative study	To explore the lived experiences of women whose partners commute to the Alberta oil sands for work	8 partners of LDC workers; age 37–50yrs; Country: Canada; Industry: mining/petroleum	Children behaviour and emotional	Interviews; Analysis plan: Thematic analysis	Partners reported children exhibit no severe behavioural or emotional issues, but children experience sadness and loneliness in the beginning of father commuting job	Children experienced mixed impact of rotation work on their psychological well-being

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Conclusion

The impact of rotation work on the mental health and wellbeing of the partners and children of rotation workers remains unclear. On days where spouses are away, partners may experience greater loneliness and poorer sleep quality. Partners may benefit from support in balancing the increased domestic and family demands, particularly when they have younger children and/or their spouses first begin rotation work jobs. Research is limited, particularly in regard to the impact on health-related behaviours and physical health outcomes.

Data availability statement

All data are included in the article or uploaded as supplementary information.