Goal-setting practices in sport psychology: An investigation into practitioner experiences

Figures & data

Table 1. Participant demographic characteristics from stage 1 and stage 2.

Demographic variable	Stage 1 – survey (n)	Stage 2 – interview (n)
Gender
Male	51	7
Female	46	7
Fluid	1	0
Did not report	2	0
Ethnicity
White	83	13
Black	5	0
Hispanic	3	0
Mixed/multiple	4	0
Other	0	1
Did not report	5	0
Highest level of degree held
Doctorate	55	9
Masters	37	5
Bachelors	8	0
Accreditations held
AASP	53	7
CSPA	15	1
BASES	0	0
BPS	2	0
Multiple	10	3
Other (e.g., Sport Ireland Institute)	3	0
Did not report	1	0
Accreditations working toward
AASP	15	3
BASES	1	0
Primary employment setting
Academia	25	4
Private Practice	25	5
Athletic department/team	15	2
Full-time student	12	1
Other (e.g., military)	23	2
Populations worked with
Sport	73	13
Exercise	6	1
Other (e.g., military)	20	0
Did not report	1	0
Sport level worked in
International	12	4
National	32	5
Regional	24	4
Grassroots	5	0
Theoretical paradigm
Cognitive behavioral	53	7
Humanistic	12	1
Existential	7	2
Behavioral	4	0
Cognitive	4	1
Other (e.g., eclectic)	15	3
No paradigm followed	5	0

Note. AASP = Association for Applied Sport Psychology. BASES = British Association of Sport and Exercise Science. BPS = British Psychological Society. CSPA = Canadian Sport Psychology Association.

Table 2. Goal characteristics, participant definitions, and number of participant endorsements.

Goal characteristics	Definition	N
Specificity
Specific goals	Goals that follow the SMART (i.e., S) principles of goal-setting.	n = 20
Non-specific goals	Goals where there is no plan of action in place or timeframe for achieving them.	n = 1
Do-your-best goals	Goals in which athletes attempt to do their best.	n = 1
Difficulty
Achievable, attainable, realistic	Goals that follow the SMART (i.e., A or R) principles of goal-setting.	n = 10
Dream goal	Goals that are unlikely to be attained but worth pursuing.	n = 5
Proximity
Short-term goals	Daily, weekly, or monthly goals seen as steps to achieving long-term goals. Goals focused on the next practice or competition.	n = 23
Intermediate goals	Goals that fall between short-term and long-term goals.	n = 3
Long-term goals	Monthly, yearly, or career goals.	n = 23
Focus	Goals focused on mental, physical, technical, and tactical components of performance, and social, family, relationship, school, and personal development aspects of the client.	n = 18
Type
Process	Goals focused on specific tasks or actions that are linked to achieving performance or outcome goals. Usually in the control of the client. Two participants described these as task goals. Two participants described these as mastery goals.	n = 79
Performance	Self-referenced, performance related (i.e., trying to reach a performance standard), objective goals that help the client reach their outcome goals. Clients have some control (e.g., dependent on how they perform) over these goals.	n = 51
Outcome	Goals focused on objective performance and related to competition results, comparison to others, and what the client ultimately wants to achieve. Clients have the least control (e.g., dependent on the performance of opponents) over these goals.	n = 58
Team vs Individual	Goals set at the team (n = 5) and individual level (n = 6).	n = 11
Values-based goals	Goals that align with the value-driven behavior of the client.	n = 3

Figure 1. A composite conceptual map of steps in the goal-setting process, goal-setting influences, and outcomes associated with setting goals.