Utilizing Clostridium autoethanogenum for dietary protein in aquafeeds: Current progress in research and future perspectives

Figures & data

Figure 1. A summary of the production and application of Clostridium autoethanogenum protein (CAP) in aquaculture.

Table 1. Nutritional composition (dry matter, DM basis) of Clostridium autoethanogenum protein biomass from different companies.

Source	Crude protein (%)	Crude fat (%)	Ash (%)	Dry matter (%)	References
Beijing Shoulang Biotechnology Co. Ltd., China	≥80	0.20	-	-	(Li et al. 2021; Maulu et al. 2021)
	88.93	0.21	5.40	94.37	(Chen et al. 2020)
	80.00	0.19	3.50	-	(Ma et al. 2022a)
	84.21	0.19	3.27	-	(Yao et al. 2022)
	83.50	0.19	3.50	-	(Yang et al. 2022)
Zehecheng Biotechnology Co., Ltd., China)	82.40	0.39	5.03	-	(Cai et al. 2022)
FuJian Dachang Biological Technology Co., Ltd., China	85.72	0.20	6.42	-	(Wu et al. 2022)
Qingdao Bio-ways Ingredients Bio-technology Co., Ltd., China	83.98	0.08	5.32	-	(Cui et al. 2022)
Hebei Shoulang New Energy Technology Co., Ltd., China	84.20	0.20	-	-	(Zheng et al. 2022)
	84.21	0.19	-	92.86	(Li et al. 2022)
	85.31	2.59	-	-	(Zhang et al. 2022)
	86.22	1.96	-	92.05	(Zheng et al. 2022)
	82.30	-	-	-	(Wang et al. 2023)
	84.20	1.90	3.27	-	(Yang et al. 2022)

Table 2. An overview of the amino acids profile of Clostridium autoethanogenum protein (CAP) biomass against fishmeal (% diet, DM).

Essential amino acids (EAA)										Non-essential amino acids (NEAA)
Lys	Met	Val	Phe	Thr	His	Iso	Leu	Arg	Try	Tyr	Cys	Ala	Gly	Glu	Ser	Pro	Asp	Reference
8.72	2.29	5.44	3.30	4.02	1.68	5.28	6.38	3.40	-	3.14	0.71	4.63	3.87	9.78	3.21	2.40	9.54	(Yao et al. 2022, 2024)
8.12	2.54	5.11	3.78	3.63	1.25	5.57	6.48	3.54	-	3.33	0.77	4.93	4.03	8.17	3.21	2.92	9.63	(Wu et al. 2022)
7.06	2.41	4.57	3.07	3.47	3.26	5.00	5.69	1.25	-	3.07	0.72	4.78	3.56	9.74	2.80	-	7.83	(Cui et al. 2022)
8.70	2.29	5.44	3.59	4.02	1.68	5.28	5.26	3.40	-	3.14	0.71	4.63	3.87	9.78	3.21	2.40	9.54	(Jiang et al. 2021)
8.70	2.29	5.44	3.30	4.02	1.68	5.28	6.38	3.40	-	0.62	0.95	4.63	3.87	9.78	3.21	2.40	9.54	(Fan et al. 2022; Li et al. 2022; Yang et al. 2022)
8.49	2.24	5.32	3.40	4.10	1.28	5.50	6.33	3.23	-	2.66	0.56	4.16	3.98	8.80	3.05	2.32	9.12	(Wang et al. 2023)
8.43	2.25	5.45	3.46	3.81	1.74	5.69	6.58	3.52	-	3.03	1.02	4.89	4.12	10.49	3.08	-	9.57	(Chen et al. 2020)
7.40	2.32	5.09	3.17	4.40	1.22	4.98	6.06	3.42	0.49	2.96	1.37	4.88	3.93	8.58	3.36	2.76	8.94	(Zhang et al. 2022)
7.58	2.29	5.44	3.00	4.02	1.68	5.28	6.22	3.40	0.62	3.14	0.71	4.63	3.87	9.78	3.21	2.40	9.54	(Ma et al. 2022b)
8.59	2.51	5.53	3.57	4.10	1.20	5.93	6.60	3.62	0.49	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	(Maulu et al. 2021)
5.53	1.70	3.68	2.71	3.21	2.03	3.66	4.72	2.35	-	2.12	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	(Li et al. 2023)
Fishmeal amino acids profile
4.56	1.83	2.83	2.64	2.64	2.08	2.46	4.25	3.45	1.16	1.87	0.63	3.80	4.29	7.40	2.03	2.79	4.40	(Wang et al. 2005; Hall et al. 2018)

Lys, lysine; Met, methionine; Val, valine; Phe, phenylalanine; Thr, threonine; His, histidine; Iso, isoleucine; Leu, leucine; Arg, arginine; Try, trypsin; Tyr, tyrosine; Cys, cysteine; Ala, alanine; Gly, glycine; Glu, glutamic acid; Ser, serine; Pro, proline; Asp, aspartic acid.

Table 3. A summary of the effects of Clostridium autoethanogenum protein in various aquaculture species reported by numerous studies.

Species	size (g)	Trial period	Water temperature	CAP inclusion level	MRIL	Reported effects compared to control diet (p < .05)	References
GIFT (Oreochromis niloticus)	0.7±0.05	8 wks.	25–29 ℃	CAP included at 5,10,15, & 20% in a mainly plant-based diet.	20%	WG (+); SGR (+); FCR (-); SR (0); whole fish body crude lipid (+) by 5% CAP; Plasma triglycerides (TG) (+); Energy regulation via MPK signalling pathway (+).	(Maulu et al. 2021)
Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idllus).	25.66±0.03	10 wks.	-	5 and 10% CAP to replace soybean meal (SBM)	5%	WG (+); SGR (+); FCR (+); SR (0); fish liver health status (0).	(Wei et al. 2018)
	512.05±1.20	13 wks.	-	0, 30, & 100% CAP replacing SBM in the diet	100%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); FCR (0); carcass composition (0); Muscle nutritional value (+); sensory characteristics (+).	(Xue et al. 2023)
	4.56±0.01	8 wks.		0, 24.45, 27.31, 31.82, 35.79, 38.64, and 42.82% replacing FM	37.90%	FBW (+); SGR (+); FE (+); lipid disposition (-); structural lesions (-); anti-inflammatory ability (+); intestinal mucosal fold length (+); muscularis thickness layer (+); beneficial intestinal microbiota (+); antioxidant capacity (0).	(Liu et al. 2024)
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)	211.9±1.2	8 wks.	27–30 ℃	100% CAP replacing fishmeal (FM)	100%	Intestinal histology (+); immunochemistry barrier (+); inflammatory response and permeability (-); intestinal antioxidant enzymes (+); intestinal microbiota of beneficial species (+).	(Li et al. 2023)
	17.75±0.50	8 wks.	20–26 ℃	15, 27, 39, 51, 63, & 75% CAP replacing FM	63%	FBW (0); WG (0); FBW (0); protein efficiency ratio, PER (+); FCR (+). carcass composition (0). ADC of dry matter and protein (+); digestive enzymes (0). Intestinal and hepatic histology (0); and antioxidant capacity (0).	(Zhu et al. 2022)
	4.99±0.19	4 wks.	25–30 ℃	100% CAP replacing FM	100%	Intestinal superoxide dismutase activity (+); intestinal barrier integrity (+); intestinal inflammatory response (+). Abundance of beneficial bacteria taxa like Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Cetobacterium (+).	(Li et al. 2022)
	110.0±0.5	8 wks.	25–30 ℃	10, 15, 20, 25, & 30% CAP replacing FM	15%	SGR and FCR (0); flesh quality (+). Fish’s differential metabolites (+).	(Yang et al. 2022)
	47.99±0.01	8 wks.	22–24 ℃	2.5, 25, 37.5, & 50% CAP replacing FM	25%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); FCR (0); SR (0); carcass lipid (-). Plasma alanine aminotransferase activities (0); triglyceride concentrations (0); plasma aspartate aminotransferase activity (0). Richness and diversity of the gut-adhesive microbiota (+); fatty acid synthesis (0).	(Ma et al. 2022a)
	80.0	12 wks.	25–30 ℃	15, 30, 45, 70, & 100% replacing FM	70%	WG (0); FCR (0); Fish flesh n-3/n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (0); intestinal protease activity (0); villi width and height (0). Higher inclusion yielded negative effects.	(Yang et al. 2022)
Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)	2.78	8 wks.	22–30 ℃	15, 30, 45, 70 & 100% CAP replaced FM	30%	FBW (0); WG (0); FCR (0); SR (0); meat yield (0); carcass composition (0); flesh quality (0); flesh amino acids and fatty acids metabolism (0).	(Yao et al. 2022)
	2.78±0.13	8 wks.	26–30 ℃	30, 45, 70% CAP replacing FM	30%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); intestinal histology (0); fish immunity (0). Higher inclusion levels yielded effects.	(Jiang et al. 2021)
	3.04±0.01	4 wks.	25–28 ℃	30% replacing FM	30%	FBW (0); WG (0); SR (0); survival (0); ADC of dry matter and protein (+); ADC lipids (0).	(Li et al. 2022)
	0.38±0.01		27–30 °C	15, 30, & 45% CAP replacing FM	35%	After pathogen challenge, WG (+); SGR (+); FCR (+); survival rate (+). Digestive enzymes activities (+); intestinal health status (+).	(Chen et al. 2022)
Abalone (Haliotis discus hannai)	21.83±0.25	16 wks.	17–24 ℃	25, 50, 75 & 100% replacing FM	100%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); survival (0); flesh amino acids (+); protein synthesis (+); glycolysis (+) by 25% CAP. carcass protein content (+); flesh hardness quality (+) by 25 and 50% CAP.	(Wu et al. 2022)
Large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea)	189.9±1.11	13 wks.	20–29 ℃	15, 30, 45, 60, 75 & 100% CAP replacing FM	30%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); FCR (0); SR (0); intestinal health status (0); flesh quality (0).	(Wu et al. 2022)
	11.86±0.13	8 wks.	20–26 ℃	15, 30, & 45% CAP replacing FM	15%	WG (0); SGR (0); SR (0); serum C4 concentration (0). Fish’s humoral immunity (0); intestinal health (0).	(Zhang et al. 2022)
Obscure pufferfish (Takifugu obscurus)	18.40±0.20g	9 wks.	25–28 ℃	20, 40, & 80% CAP replacing FM	20%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); FCR (0); SR (0). The apparent digestibility coefficient of nutrients (0). Fish muscle taurine content (0). Protein synthesis in fish muscle (+) by 40%.	(Cui et al. 2022)
Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian)	2.45±0.1	10 wks.	27–29 ℃	5, 10, 15, & 20% CAP replacing plant proteins	20%	FBW (+); WG (+); SGR (+); FCR (+); SR (0); serum biochemical parameters (+); antioxidant capacity (+).	(Li et al. 2021)
Black sea bream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii)	6.03±0.09	10 wks.	27–29 °C	4.85, 9.70, 14.55, 19.40, 38.80 & 58.20% CAP replacing FM	38.80%	FBW (0), WG (0); SGR (0); PER (0); FCR (0); SR (0). Carcass composition (0); antioxidant capacity (0); digestive enzyme activities (0).	(Chen et al. 2020)
Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.)	9.13±0.02	8 wks.	25–27 ◦C	15, 30, 45, 60 & 80% replacing FM	45%	FBW (0); WG (0); SGR (0); FCR (0); PER (0); SR (0); fish lipid deposition (0) by up to 40% CAP.	(Zheng et al. 2022)
Red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)	6.00±0.01	8 wks.	25–27 °C	25, 50, 75, & 100% FM replacement	25%	WG (0); SGR (0); FCR (0); SR (0); activity of serum aspartate aminotransferase (+); muscle amino acid composition (+); immune response (+); intestinal microbial community (0).	(Dai et al. 2023)

MRIL, maximum recommended inclusion level without adverse effects; FBW, final body weight; WG, weight gain; SGR, specific growth rate; FCR, feed conversion ratio; PER, protein efficiency ratio; SR, survival rate; ADC, apparent digestibility coefficient.

Symbols: (0) no effect observed; (+) better; (-) worse, based on statistical analysis.

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