A review of the inquiry and utility of mineral and rock labs for use in introductory geology courses

Figures & data

Table 1. The list of search results with the number of hits (labs returned), number of labs assessed (labs reviewed), and the number of labs that met the requirements for detailed evaluation (labs kept).

Search term	Labs returned	Labs reviewed	Labs kept
“Igneous”	133	40	3
Igneous	151	151	19
“Igneous rocks”	40	40	18
Igneous rocks	99	99	19
Igneous rock lab	967	230	22
“Introductory mineral lab”	0	0	0
Introductory mineral lab	912	300	30
“Introductory rock lab”	0	0	0
Introductory rock lab	1242	160	19
Metamorphic	142	142	15
“Metamorphic rocks”	32	32	8
Metamorphic rocks	91	91	12
Metamorphic rock lab	970	240	30
Mineral	147	147	22
Mineral labs	24	24	8
Minerals	937	200	13
Mineral identification	164	164	10
Rocks	679	70	15
Rock lab	953	80	12
Rock labs	211	211	11
Rock identification	113	113	35
Sedimentary	898	50	9
“Sedimentary rocks”	54	54	14
Sedimentary rocks	183	183	35
Total	9142	2821	36

Total number represents the number of labs within the starting subsection.

Table 2. The inquiry Rubric used to break down inquiry into specific items that can be asked of a student.

	Confirmation	Structured inquiry	Guided inquiry	Open inquiry	Authentic inquiry
Problem / Question	Provided	0 < Inquiry Score ≤2	2 < Inquiry Score ≤3	3 < Inquiry Score ≤5	Not provided
Theory/Background	Provided				Not provided
Procedures/Design	Provided				Not provided
Analysis	Provided				Not provided
Communication	Provided				Not provided
Conclusions	Provided				Not provided

Table 3. Examples of inquiry or no inquiry for each item in a laboratory activity as dictated by the rubric in Table 2.

	Inquiry	No inquiry
Problem/Question	“You will then construct a hypothesis and test your hypothesis by calculating the density of the rocks”	“Identify the minerals”
Theory/Background	“Have them look at the basket of tools and brainstorm how they might use them”	“Using the background information provided, answer the following”
Procedures/Design	“Each group has a collection of objects. In your groups decide which objects are minerals and which are not”	“Use the physical properties of the samples, Table 1. Mohs Hardness Scale, and Table 2, Physical Properties of Minerals to identify the minerals.”
Analysis	“Identify each sample. Describe the diagnostic characteristics of the mineral (… include enough to distinguish that mineral from any other)”	“Use the time range charts and the fossils that you have identified for each layer to assign an age range to each of the layers”
Communication	“Prepare.. one figure that illustrates a geological aspect of your study region”	“Apply hardness tests and give results as limits”
Conclusions	“Can you extrapolate the information you just gathered to other systems (especially rocks)?”	“The TA will circulate through the groups and tell you whether you got the answer right”

Table 4. The utility rubric with criteria descriptions and rankings.

Utility rubric
Instructor time
	Low utility (1)	Moderate utility (2)	High utility (3)	Notes
Instructor training	Well-experienced instructor required, extended training needed	Moderate lab experience or extended training needed	No prior teaching necessary/no extended lab experience needed to run the lab	Equipment used: 1 or 2 Location outside of lab space: 2
Ease of grading	2+ extended response or 5+ short response or 60+ fill in the blank	1 extended response or 3–5 short response or 30–60 fill in the blank	less than 3 short response or less than 30 fill in the blank	Guiding questions are used instead of set questions or report requirements: 3
Instructional time	Lengthy introduction to material or group facilitation needed	Short introductory presentation or discussion (roughly less than 10 min) followed by Q&A as necessary	All necessary background information included in the lab	If no background related to the “why” or bigger questions are in the lab a short intro presentation is assumed: 2
Pre-class preparation	Lab requires materials that must be replaced, made, or set up between each time instructed	Materials need to be cataloged / can be set up once for multiple labs with little work between	No specific set up required
Duration of lab	More than one designated lab period	Designed for one lab period but has potential to run long or requires pre/post work that is needed to be done outside of lab time	One lab period with no additional time requirements
Group vs. individual work	Individual assignments/worksheets	Each student turns in an assignment but was completed with a group	Assignment per group	Not specified: 2
Material cost
	Low utility (1)	Moderate utility (2)	High utility (3)	Notes
Accessibility of Supplies	Supplies are very specific and hard to locate at a wide variety of scientific vendors	Relatively common supplies but likely need to be ordered from scientific vendors and required preordering	Supplies can either be found outside naturally available or can be picked up at any local store	If materials not required but useful assume they would be purchased Standard rock kit assortment = 2 Student access to computers and basic processing software assumed
Location of the lab	Field trip that involves car travel	Outside of classroom but is within a walkable distance	In the designated lab space	Online assume 3
Initial cost	Greater than $500 needed	$50–$500 to buy all supplies needed for lab to run	No purchases necessary	If materials not required but useful assume they would be purchased
Upkeep cost	Samples and/or equipment must be replaced each lab	Materials generally reusable, but will need to be replaced long term – e.g., glass plates and samples	No wear and tear on samples or equipment

Figure 1. Percentage of labs incorporating activities at each level of inquiry. Some labs (n = 9) contained multiple activities at different inquiry levels.

Figure 2. Percentage of activities that incorporated inquiry at the various steps of the scientific method.

Figure 3. Percent utility breakdown for high (light gray) medium (gray), and low (black) within each of the rubric categories.

Figure 4. (a) Plot of (A) time utility, monetary utility (B), and overall utility (C) within each inquiry category. None of the labs examined during this study consisted of all confirmation or authentic activities. (b) Plot of (A) time utility, monetary utility (B), and overall utility (C) within each inquiry category. None of the labs examined during this study consisted of all confirmation or authentic activities. (c) Plot of (A) time utility, monetary utility (B), and overall utility (C) within each inquiry category. None of the labs examined during this study consisted of all confirmation or authentic activities.