Measuring teacher-student relationships in adolescence: A systematic, cross-cultural review

Figures & data

Figure 1. PRISMA diagram.

Table 1. Teacher-student relationship: measure composition for teacher report.

Citation	Measure Name	Country of Origin (Language)	School Level Taught	Reliability	Validity
Asia
Ang (2005)	Teacher – Student Relationship Inventory (TSRI)	Singapore (English)	MS	+	+
Soh (2000)	Creativity Fostering Teacher Index	Singapore (English)	ES, MS	+	-
Sun et al. (2017)	Teacher Caring Questionnaire	China (Chinese)	ES, MS	+	+
Tan et al. (2019)	Classroom Teacher Interaction Skills Scale	Singapore (English)	ES, MS, HS, PS	+	+
Europe
Veldman et al. (2017)	Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction-Self-Efficacy (QTI-SE)	Netherlands (Dutch)	ES, MS	+	+
North America
Brinkworth et al. (2018)	Teacher-Student Relationship Scale	United States (English)	MS, HS	+	+
Cipriano et al. (2019)	Emotion-Focused Interactions (EFI) Scale	United States (English)	MS	+	+
Possel et al. (2013)	Teacher Behavior Questionnaire (TBQ-S)	United States (English)	HS	+	+
Wilkins, J. (2007)	Student-Teacher Relationship Survey: Teacher Version	United States (English)	HS	+	-

Note. ES = Elementary School, MS = Middle School, HS = High School, PS = Post-Secondary School, + = Authors provided some evidence, - = Authors did not provide any evidence.

Table 2. Teacher-student relationship: measure composition for student report.

Citation	Measure Name	Country of Origin (Language)	Age/School Level	Reliability	Validity
Asia
Aldhafri and Alhadabi (2019)	Student – Teacher Relationship Measure (S-TRM)	Oman (Arabic)	NR MS, HS	+	-
Ang et al. (2020)	Student Version of the Teacher Student Relationship Inventory (S-TSRI)	Singapore (English)	NR ES, MS	+	-
She and Fisher (2000)	Teacher Communication Behavior Questionnaire (TCBQ)	Taiwan (Chinese)	NR MS, HS	+	-
Zelyurt and Koksalan (2020)	Perceived Middle School Teacher Behavior Scale (PMSTBS)	Turkey (Turkish)	NR ES, MS	+	-
Europe
De Bruyn (2004)	Mentor Behaviour Rating Scale (MBRS)	Netherlands (Dutch)	13.01 (average) MS	+	+
García-Moya et al. (2021)	Student – Teacher Connectedness Measure^b	England (English)	11,13,15 MS, HS	+	+
García-Moya et al. (2021)	Student – Teacher Connectedness Measure^b	Spain (Spanish)	11,13,15 MS, HS	+	+
Havik and Westergård (2020)	Classroom Interaction Survey^a	Norway (Norwegian)	NR ES, MS, HS	+	+
Koomen and Jellesma (2015)	Student Perception of Affective Relationship with Teacher Scale (SPARTS)	Netherlands (Dutch)	10.89 (average) ES, MS	+	+
North America
Berman-Young (2014)	Measure of Teacher Caring and Support and Student Engagement-Student Report	United States (English)	NR ES, MS	+	+
Brinkworth et al. (2018)	Teacher-Student Relationship Scale	United States (English)	NR MS, HS	+	+
Freese, S. F. (1999)	Teacher Caring Survey^a	United States (English)	NR HS	+	+
Liu et al. (2018)	Global Teacher-Student Relationships^a	United States (English)	NR HS	+	-
Pham et al. (2022)	Inventory of Teacher-Student Relationships (I-TSR)	United States (English)	14–19 HS	+	+
Possel et al. (2013)	Teacher Behavior Questionnaire (TBQ-S)	United States (English)	NR HS	+	+
Trahan, M. N. (2013)	Classroom Social Capital Scale (CSCS)	United States (English)	11–15 MS	+	+
Wilkins, J. (2007)	Student-Teacher Relationship Survey: Student Version	United States (English)	NR HS	+	-

Note. ES = Elementary School, MS = Middle School, HS = High School, + = Authors provided some evidence, - = Authors did not provide any evidence.

^aAuthors did not provide a name for the measure.

^bAlthough the Student – Teacher Connectedness Measure is available in both English and Spanish, it is considered as one measure.

Table 3. Results from the Thematic Analysis on measures of teacher-student relationships.

Themes and Subthemes	Asia	Europe	North America
Positive Teacher Qualities
Likeable Teacher	X	X	X
Trusting Relationship	X	X	X
Compassionate Teacher	X	X
Provides Help	X	X
Caring Teacher	X		X
Social Teacher	X
Conflict Resolution	X
Non-Verbal Cues	X
Student Seen as an Individual		X
Student At Ease		X
Active Listening			X
Patience			X
Teacher Availability			X
Respect and Fairness			X
Negative Interpersonal Interactions
Conflict	X	X	X
Teacher Dependency		X
Classroom Management
Behavior Expectation	X		X
Behavior Management		X	X
Flexible Teacher	X
Classroom Management			X
Instructional Methods
Effective Teaching Strategies	X	X	X
Academic Expectations	X		X
Recognition and Merit	X		X
Challenge Student Academically	X		X
Fostering Confidence	X
Encouraging Teacher			X
Provide Academic Help			X
Positive Student Qualities
Likeable Student	X
Teacher’s Trust			X
Classroom Climate
Classroom Climate	X	X
Belonging			X

*Ang, R. P. (2005). Development and validation of the Teacher-student relationship inventory using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 74(1), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.74.1.55-74

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Soh, K.-C. (2000). Indexing creativity fostering Teacher behavior: A preliminary validation study. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 34(2), 118–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2000.tb01205.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Sun, B., Shao, Y., Richardson, M. J., Weng, Y., & Shen, J. (2017). The caring behaviour of primary and middle school teachers in China: Features and structure. Educational Psychology, 37(3), 362–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2016.1214688

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Tan, Y. J., Quek, C. L. G., & Fulmer, G. (2019). Validation of classroom Teacher interaction skills scale. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28(5), 429–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-019-00444-6

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Veldman, I., Admiraal, W., Mainhard, T., Wubbels, T., & van Tartwijk, J. (2017). Measuring teachers’ interpersonal self-efficacy: Relationship with realized interpersonal aspirations, classroom management efficacy and age. Social Psychology of Education, 20(2), 411–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-017-9374-1

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Brinkworth, M. E., McIntyre, J., Juraschek, A. D., & Gehlbach, H. (2018). Teacher-student relationships: The positives and negatives of assessing both perspectives. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 55, 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.09.002

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Cipriano, C., Barnes, T. N., Kolev, L., Rivers, S., & Brackett, M. (2019). Validating the emotion-focused interactions scale for teacher–student interactions. Learning Environments Research, 22(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-018-9264-2

 Google Scholar

*Pössel, P., Rudasill, K. M., Adelson, J. L., Bjerg, A. C., Wooldridge, D. T., & Black, S. W. (2013). Teaching behavior and well-being in students: Development and concurrent validity of an instrument to measure student-reported teaching behavior. International Journal of Emotional Education, 5(2), 5–30.

 Google Scholar

*Wilkins, J. (2007). An examination of the student and teacher behaviors that contribute to good student-teacher relationships in large urban high schools [ Ph.D., State University of New York at Buffalo]. http://www.proquest.com/docview/304944893/abstract/CEA03082DF3648CBPQ/1

 Google Scholar

*Aldhafri, S., & Alhadabi, A. (2019). The psychometric properties of the student–Teacher relationship measure for Omani grade 7–11 students. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02283

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Ang, R. P., Ong, S. L., & Li, X. (2020). Student version of the Teacher–student relationship inventory (S-TSRI): Development, validation and invariance. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01724

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*She, H.-C., & Fisher, D. (2000). The development of a questionnaire to describe science teacher communication behavior in Taiwan and Australia. Science Education, 84(6), 706–726. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-237X(200011)84:6<706:AID-SCE2>3.0.CO;2-W

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Zelyurt, H., & Koksalan, B. (2020). Development of the perceived middle school Teacher behavior scale. Educational Policy Analysis and Strategic Research, 15(1), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.29329/epasr.2020.236.9

 Google Scholar

*De Bruyn, E. H. (2004). Development of the mentor behaviour rating scale. School Psychology International, 25(2), 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034304043686

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*García-Moya, I., Brooks, F., & Moreno, C. (2021). A new measure for the assessment of student–teacher connectedness in adolescence. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(5), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000621

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Havik, T., & Westergård, E. (2020). Do teachers matter? Students’ perceptions of classroom interactions and student engagement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 64(4), 488–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2019.1577754

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Koomen, H. M. Y., & Jellesma, F. C. (2015). Can closeness, conflict, and dependency be used to characterize students’ perceptions of the affective relationship with their teacher? Testing a new child measure in middle childhood. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 479–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12094

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Berman-Young, S. B. (2014). (2022), December 19 Teacher-Student Relationships: Examining Student Perceptions of Teacher Support and Positive Student Outcomes [ *, University of Minnesota]. http://www.proquest.com/docview/1614471854/abstract/BD8102B453934AB0PQ/1

 Google Scholar

*Freese, S. F. (1999). The relationship between teacher caring and student engagement in academic high school classes [ Ed.D., Hofstra University]. http://www.proquest.com/docview/304505672/abstract/17EF946279B14F9EPQ/1

 Google Scholar

*Liu, P. P., Savitz-Romer, M., Perella, J., Hill, N. E., & Liang, B. (2018). Student representations of dyadic and global teacher-student relationships: Perceived caring, negativity, affinity, and differences across gender and race/ethnicity. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 281–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.07.005

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Pham, Y. K., Murray, C., & Gau, J. (2022). The inventory of teacher-student relationships: Factor structure and associations with school engagement among high-risk youth. Psychology in the Schools, 59(2), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22617

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

*Trahan, M. N. (2013). A conceptual and measurement model of student-Teacher classroom social capital: an exploration of relationships [ D.Ed., University of Louisiana at Lafayette]. In ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. http://www.proquest.com/docview/1524019270/abstract/AAC8CA9994174F6BPQ/1

 Google Scholar

Data availability statement

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.