The Influence of Conventional and Biodynamic Winemaking Processes on the Quality of Sangiovese Wine

Figures & data

Table 1 Composition of Sangiovese Biodynamic Grapes at 2015 and 2016 Harvests: Mean Values, F-Values and Least Significant Difference (LSD)

Grape	Date of Harvest	Berry Weight (g)	Sugar (g/L)	Titratable Acidity (g/ L Tartaric Acid)	pH	Skin / Pulp Ratio	Total Potential in Anthocyanins (ApH1.0, mg/L M3MG)	Extractable Anthocyanins (ApH3.2, mg/L M3MG)	Cellular Maturity Index (%)	Phenolic Richness (OD280nm)	Seed Maturity (Mp%)	Skin Tannins (Dtpel%)	Seed Tannins (Dtpep%)
A15	09/29/2015	2.34 e	198 a	6.42 c	3.57 e	80 d	678 a	470 a	31 a	36 a	74 c	9 a	26 a
B15	09/18/2015	1.72 a	243 e	6.81 e	3.47 c	116 f	1280 d	744 c	42 d	60 d	75 d	15 c	45 e
C15	09/22/2015	1.80 bc	231 d	6.52 d	3.53 d	111 e	1145 b	740 c	36 b	61 e	76 e	15 c	46 f
A16	10/01/2016	1.85 cd	222 b	5.12 b	3.44 b	65 c	1199 c	700 b	42 d	47 b	70 b	14 b	33 b
B16	09/20/2016	1.79 b	223 c	7.25 f	2.84 a	63 a	1770 f	875 d	51 e	54 c	68 a	17 d	36 c
C16	09/27/2016	1.87d	247 f	4.98 a	3.47 c	64 b	1589 e	950 e	40 c	60 d	68 a	19 e	41 d
F- value		146***	1732***	8931***	1374***	10480***	15226***	8659***	11605***	6900***	756***	8659***	7272***

Notes: Same letter within the same row indicates no significant difference (p-values >0.05);

*** Indicates significance at p ≤ 0.001.

Abbreviation: A, B, C, biodynamic wineries.

Table 2 Biodynamic and Conventional Winemaking Protocol Applied During Fermentation/Maceration (2015 and 2016 Vintages)

	Wine Code	Tank Material	Fermentation/ Maceration Time (Days)	Addition			Color Extraction Technique				Malolactic Fermentation
				Sulfitation at Crushing (g/hL SO2)	Addition of Selected Yeast (g/hL Saccharomyces cerevisiae)	Other Additions (Enzymes, Nutrients, etc.)	Pumping-Over	Punching- Down	Déléstage	Cap Wetting	Addition of Selected Bacteria (g/hL Oenococcus oeni)
Conventional winemaking with biodynamic grapes	AI5CONV AI6CONV BI5CONV BI6CONV CI5CONV CI6CONV	Stainless steel	12	7.5	20	Maceration enzyme, nitrogen nutrients	2/day in open air until alcoholic fermentation was complete	–	–	2/day during maceration until racking	2
Biodynamic winemaking with biodynamic grapes	AI5BIOD AI6BIOD	Concrete	12	1.5	–	–	3/day in open air for 8 days	–	–	–	–
	BI5BIOD BI6BIOD	Concrete	16	2	–	–	4/day in open air for 8 days l/day for 2 days	–	1	l/day until racking	–
	CI5BIOD CI6BIOD	Oak	34	2.5	–	–	3/day in open air for 18 days 2/day for 2 days	4/day for 2 days	2 for 5 hrs each	1 /day for 4 days	–

Abbreviations: A, B, C, biodynamic wineries; CONV, conventional winemaking protocol; BIOD, biodynamic winemaking protocol; 15, 16, 2015 and 2016 vintages.

Table 3 Eligibility and Identity Chemical Variables Measured in the 2015 and 2016 Conventional (CONV) and Biodynamic (BIOD) Wines: Average, Interactions, F-Values and Least Significant Difference (LSD)^1,2

Code	Chemical variables	Vintage		Winemaking protocol		Growing area			Interactions
		2015	2016	BIOD	CONV	A	B	C	Winemaking protocol x Area	Winemaking protocol x Vintage
Eligibility chemical variables
1	pH	3.58 a	3.60 a	3.59 a	3.59 a	3.46 a	3.58 ab	3.74 b	14.26**	11.45*
	F-value	1.11 ns		0.01 ns		33.43***
2	Titratable acidity (g/L)	5.57 a	5.53 a	5.11 a	5.99 b	6.14 b	5.28 a	5.23 a	15.67**	0.02 ns
	F-value	0.24 ns		89.93***		40.57***
3	Alcohol content (% v/v)	13.82 a	13.58 a	14.19 b	13.21 a	13.99 b	13.27 a	13.85 b	6.29*	16.07**
	F-value	3.27 ns		51.78***		10.48**
4	SO2 free (mg/L)	19 b	16 a	16 a	19 b	19 c	15 a	18 b	26.58***	21.96**
	F-value	72.13***		72.13***		22.98***
5	SO2 total (mg/L)	36 a	53 b	36 a	53 b	46 a	45 a	43 a	11.34**	0.08 ns
	F-value	21.92**		22.11**		0.26 ns
6	Volatile acidity (g/L)	0.78 a	0.60 a	0.69 a	0.70 a	0.72 a	0.70 a	0.65 a	1.72 ns	4.69 ns
	F-value	4.31 ns		0.01 ns		0.24 ns
7	Total phenols Index	50.78 b	49.00 a	52.03 b	47.80 a	56.30 c	44.89 a	48.55 b	43.98***	14.43**
	F-value	10.74*		64.57***		163.83***
8	Color intensity	7.22 a	8.10 b	6.82 a	8.51 b	9.39 c	6.53 a	7.06 b	5386.59***	7.88*
	F-value	1999.03***		7293.28***		7814.44***
9	Hue	0.92 b	0.86 a	0.95 b	0.83 a	0.80 a	0.89 b	0.98 c	7.01*	2.06 ns
	F-value	13.66**		65.46***		45.79***
10	Gelatin index	42.35 a	43.88 b	43.11 a	45.12 a	44.50 a	44.76 a	43.09 a	20.87***	14.50**
	F-value	10.39*		3.37 ns		0.89 ns
11	L*	78.55 b	77.01 a	80.49 b	75.08 a	73.14 a	80.57 c	79.64 b	192.64***	1.68 ns
	F-value	32.78**		406.37***		302.42***
12	a*	19.85 a	22.34 b	18.33 a	23.86 b	27.43 b	17.99 a	17.86 a	112.37***	3.61 ns
	F-value	42.66***		210.23***		276.93***
13	b*	7.36 b	6.51 a	7.93 b	5.94 a	6.92 b	6.08 a	7.81 c	13.88**	1.57 ns
	F-value	16.67**		91.63***		23.30***
14	Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside^Table Footnotea (mg/L)	3.65 a	5.79 b	4.03 a	5.41 b	6.15 c	3.57 a	4.45 b	9 14**	34.46***
	F-value	109.53***		45.65***		54.76***
15	Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside^Table Footnotea (mg/L)	2.08 a	3.01 b	2.26 a	2.82 b	3.58 b	1.85 a	2.19 a	11.29**	1.28 ns
	F-value	49.70***		17.88**		64 47***
16	Petunidin-3-O-glucoside^Table Footnotea (mg/L)	6.02 a	9.49 b	6.82 a	8.69 b	8.75 b	4.89 a	9.63 b	8.81**	3.14 ns
	F-value	33.23***		9.66*		23.49***
17	Peonidin-3-O-glucoside^Table Footnotea (mg/L)	4.01 a	6.43 b	4.76 a	5.68 a	5.35 b	3.36 a	6.94 b	3.64 ns	0.04 ns
	F-value	13.64**		1.96 ns		9.99*
18	Malvidin-3-O-glucoside (mg/L)	29.21 a	48.17 b	37.68 a	39.71 b	34.44 a	34.25 a	47.40 b	36.22***	192.82***
	F-value	1008.07***		11.63**		212.64***
19	Total monomer anthocyanins^3 (mg/L)	44.97 a	72.90 b	55.55 a	62.32 b	58.27 b	47.92 a	70.62 c	129 91***	642.59***
	F-value	4505.40***		264.33***		995.45***
20	Colored polymeric pigments ^(mg^/L)	15.80 a	25.06 b	23.12 b	17.73 a	25.74 c	22.25 b	13.29 a	15.85**	51.01***
	F-value	39.76***		13.47*		25.51***
21	Tannins (mg/L)^Table Footnoteb	82.86 b	57.24 a	77.54 b	62.56 a	85.64 b	62.16 a	62.36 a	11.83**	29.69***
	F-value	39.20***		13.38*		14.50**
Identity chemical variables
22	Ethyl aldehyde (mg/L)	55.85 a	70.79 b	36.54 a	90.10 b	74.06 a	58.79 a	57.11 a	2.61 ns	0.01 ns
	F-value	5.32*		68.40***		2.77 ns
23	Propanol-1-ol (mg/L)	30.86 a	32.17 b	20.62 a	42.41 b	23.74 a	37.16 c	33.66 b	81.00***	477.50***
	F-value	24 21***		6753.93***		917 49***
24	Ethyl acetate (mg/L)	101.38 b	73.80 a	80.43 a	94.75 a	85.57 ab	72.62 a	104.58 b	1.21 ns	12.61*
	F-value	13.95**		3.76 ns		6.32*
25	2-Methylpropan-1-ol (mg/L)	54.39 a	57.16 a	71.52 b	40.03 a	55.26 a	55.70 a	56.37 a	1.00 ns	0.13 ns
	F-value	2.17 ns		281.24***		0.12 ns
26	3-Hydroxy-2-butanone (Acetoin) ^(mg^/L)	22.93 a	40.73 b	23.16 a	40.51 b	22.88 a	45.15 b	27.47 a	16.23**	2.10 ns
	F-value	13.60**		12.92*		7.91*
27	2-Methylbutan-1-ol (mg/L)	65.00 a	72.84 a	64.35 a	73.49 b	71.08 a	66.02 a	69.67 a	2.77 ns	1.06 ns
	F-value	4.35 ns		5.91*		0.64 ns
28	3-Methylbutan-1-ol (mg/L)	212.17 a	210.83 a	199.22 a	223.78 b	217.12 a	211.35 a	206.02 a	5.34*	0.17 ns
	F-value	0.02 ns		7.09 *		0.48 ns
29	Ethyl 2-hydroxypropanoate (ethyl lactate) (mg/L)	72.66 b	38.78 a	79.51 b	31.93 a	25.00 a	88.14 b	54.02 ab	3.64 ns	0.37 ns
	F-value	6.93*		13.66**		8.04**
30	Ethyl butanoate^Table Footnotec	0.12 a	0.23 a	0.09 a	0.26 b	0.10 a	0.18 a	0.26 a	1.28 ns	0.47 ns
	F-value	5.09 ns		12.55*		3.31 ns
31	Isoamyl acetate^Table Footnotec	1.30 a	2.10 a	0.66 a	2.74 b	1.06 a	1.87 a	2.17 a	1.04 ns	0.00 ns
	F-value	3.71 ns		25.85***		2.58 ns
32	Ethyl hexanoate^Table Footnotec	2.30 a	5.27 a	5.41 a	2.17 a	1.10 a	1.36 a	8.90 b	4.60*	6.22*
	F-value	2.07 ns		2.47 ns		6.15*
33	Hexyl acetate^Table Footnotec	0.015 a	0.018 a	0.010 a	0.022 b	0.015 a	0.015 a	0.020 a	1.02 ns	4.33 ns
	F-value	1.28 ns		18.09**		0.97 ns
34	Hexan-1-ol^Table Footnotec	0.30 a	0.29 a	0.28 a	0.30 a	0.31 a	0.27 a	0.30a	15.41**	6.26*
	F-value	0.22 ns		0.54 ns		1.21 ns
35	Ethyl octanoate^Table Footnotec	8.98 b	1.14 a	3.70 a	6.41 b	4.24 a	4.66 a	6.27 a	1.56 ns	1.52 ns
	F-value	74 77***		8.95*		1.86 ns
36	(2R,5R)-2,6,6-trimethyl-10- methylidene-1-oxaspiro[4.5]dec-8- ene (Vitispirane I)^Table Footnotec	0.044 b	0.018 a	0.024 a	0.038 a	0.052 a	0.015 a	0.026 a	2.05 ns	0.00 ns
	F-value	5.84**		1.53 ns		3.89 ns
37	Ethyl nonanoate^Table Footnotec	0.024 a	0.042 b	0.017 a	0.050 b	0.018 a	0.025 a	0.057 b	0.56 ns	0.73 ns
	F-value	2.76 ns		9.99*		5.07*
38	3,7-Dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol (β- Linalool)^Table Footnotec	0.078 a	0.028 a	0.075 a	0.031 a	0.035 a	0.093 a	0.030 a	1.15 ns	1.10 ns
	F-value	1.30 ns		1.05 ns		0.89 ns
39	Octan-1-ol^Table Footnotec	0.077 b	0.052 a	0.072 a	0.057 a	0.087 b	0.059 a	0.048 a	11.77**	1.61 ns
	F-value	7.76*		2.91 ns		6.82*
40	2,6,10,10-tetramethyl-1-oxaspiro [4.5]dec-6-ene-2,8-diol (Riesling acetal)^Table Footnotec	0.019 a	0.033 a	0.030 a	0.022 a	0.030 a	0.014 a	0.034 a	2.61 ns	0.72 ns
	F-value	1.68 ns		0.42 ns		1.17 ns
41	Ethyl decanoate^Table Footnotec	2.35 b	0.39 a	1.44 a	1.29 a	1.18 a	1.49 a	1.44 a	1.19 ns	0.64 ns
	F-value	13.82**		0.08 ns		0.13 ns
42	Diethyl butanedioate (Diethyl succinate)^Table Footnotec	11.77 b	3.53 a	11.77 b	5.19 a	4.62 a	5.36 a	12.96 b	0.27 ns	12.73**
	F-value	26.93***		9.63*		11.29**
43	Ethyl undecanoate^Table Footnotec	0.113 a	0.023 a	0.041 a	0.095 a	0.050 a	0.074 a	0.080 a	1.41 ns	0.86 ns
	F-value	4.47 ns		1.62 ns		0.19 ns
44	3,7-dimethyloct-6-en-1-ol (β- Citronellol) ^Table Footnotec	0.063 a	0.060 a	0.048 a	0.075 b	0.059 a	0.058 a	0.067 a	11.34**	0.28 ns
	F-value	0.15 ns		10.45*		0.45 ns
45	2-Phenylethyl acetate (β- phenylethyl acetate)	0.259 a	0.161 a	0.142 a	0.278 b	0.259 a	0.169 a	0.203 a	0.77 ns	0.26 ns
	F-value	3.93 ns		7.55*		1.11 ns
46	(E)-1-(2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohexa-1,3- dien-1-yl)but-2-en-1-one (β-damascenone)'	0.026 a	0.009 a	0.016 a	0.019 a	0.012 a	0.021 a	0.019 a	1.12 ns	0.00 ns
	F-value	2.67 ns		0.11 ns		0.25 ns
47	Ethyl dodecanoate^Table Footnotec	0.112 a	0.162 a	0.105 a	0.169 a	0.078 a	0.101 a	0.223 b	1.79 ns	5.60*
	F-value	2.82 ns		4.53 ns		8.64*
48	2-Phenylethanol (β-phenyl ethanol) ^Table Footnotec	13.49 b	4.70 a	10.69 a	7.49 a	12.54 a	5.64 a	9.10 a	5.28*	2.12 ns
	F-value	14.08**		1.87 ns		2.90 ns
49	Octanoic acid^Table Footnotec	1.800 a	1.027 a	1.518 a	1.307 a	1.130 a	1.030 a	2.078 b	0.47 ns	0.79 ns
	F-value	7.40*		0.56 ns		5.53*
50	Dodecanoic acid^Table Footnotec	0.415 a	0.251 a	0.414 a	0.252 a	0.418 a	0.127 a	0.453 a	1.51 ns	0.32 ns
	F-value	2.09 ns		2.04 ns		3.32 ns

Notes: Same letter within the same row indicates no significant difference, for LSD;

*** Significance at p ≤ 0.001;

** Significance at p≤ 0.01;

* Significance at p ≤ 0.05; ns: not significant (p > 0.05).

a Expressed as g/L of malvidin-3-O-glucoside;

b Expressed as g/L of (+)-catechin;

c Expressed as octan-2-ol (internal standard) equivalents.

Abbreviation: A, B, C, biodynamic wineries.

Table 4 Eligibility, Identity, and Style Sensory Variables Measured in 2015 and 2016 Conventional (CONV) and Biodynamic (BIOD) Wines: Average, Interactions, F-Values and Least Significant Difference (LSD)

Sensory descriptor		Vintage		Winemaking protocol			Growing area			Interactions
		2015	2016	BIOD	CONV		A	B	C	Winemaking protocol x Area	Winemaking protocol x Vintage
Eligible sensory variables
Taste/Mouthfeel
Acidity F-value		4.7 a	4.8 a	4.6 a	4.9 a		4.9 a	4.9 a	4.5 a	3.12*	0.07 ns
		0.04 ns		2.92 ns			1.71 ns
Sweetness F-value		3.8 a	4.2 b	4.2 b	3.7 a		3.9 a	3.7 a	4.3 a	4.11*	0.00 ns
		4.30**		6.16**			1.99 ns
Astringency F-value		5.5 b	3.6 a	4.7 a	4.4 a		5.3 b	4.6 b	3.7 a	0.80 ns	0.48 ns
		97.78***		3.49 ns			23.13***
Identity sensory variables
Odor
Blackberry Jam F-value		3.1 a	2.9 a	3.1 a	2.9 a		3.1 a	3.0 a	2.9 a	1.2 ns	3.1 ns
		0.15 ns		1.31 ns			1.94 ns
Prune F-value		3.2 a	3.2 a	3.3 a	2.9 a		2.9 a	3.3 a	3.3 a	0.7 ns	0.1 ns
		0.02 ns		3.10 ns			1.33 ns
Cherry F-value		3.0 a	2.9 a	3.3 b	2.6 a		2.7 a	2.9 a	3.1 a	0.58 ns	12 75 ***
		0.31 ns		7 21**			1.22 ns
Floral F-value		2.9 a	3.1 a	3.2 b	2.8 a		3.0 a	3.1 a	2.9 a	0.37 ns	13.45***
		1.13 ns		4.13*			0.24 ns
Vegetal F-value		2.6 a	3.2 b	2.9 a	2.9 a		2.9 a	2.9 a	2.9 a	1.98 ns	3.16 ns
		9.58**		0.07 ns			0.15 ns
Spicy F-value		3.5 b	3.0 a	3.3 a	3.2 a		3.1 a	3.4 a	3.8 a	1.73 ns	0.44 ns
		4.69*		0.08 ns			0.92 ns
Flavor
Fruity F-value		3.2 a	4.2 b	3.9 a	3.5 a		3.7 a	3.7 a	3.6 a	0.88 ns	0.98 ns
		26.41***		2.91 ns			0.14 ns
Floral F-value		2.6 a	3.1 b	3.0 a	2.7 a		2.9 a	2.8 a	2.9 a	0.60 ns	4.18*
		5.76*		2.98 ns			0.22 ns
Vegetal F-value		2.4 a	3.22 b	2.7 a	3.0 b		2.9 a	2.7 a	2.8 a	2.97 ns	1.69 ns
		16.24***		2.14 ns			0.30 ns
	Style sensory variables
	Odor
	Wood F-value	3.0 a	3.5 b	3.5 b		3.1 a	3.0 a	3.3 a	3.5 a	0.60 ns	0.32 ns
		9.10**		5.84*			2.53 ns
	Flavor
	Wood F-value	2.9 a	3.6 b	3.5 b		3.1 a	3.1 a	3.2 a	3.6 a	1.84 ns	1.56 ns
		11.67***		4.70*			2.47 ns

Notes: Same letter within the same row indicates no significant difference, for LSD;

*** Significance at p ≤ 0.001

** Significance at p ≤ 0.01

* Significance at p ≤ 0.05 (p > 0.05).

Abbreviations: A, B, C, biodynamic wineries; ns, not significant.

Table 5 Average Perceived Quality and Typicality Scores Attributed by Experts in 2015 and 2016 to the Conventional (CONV) and Biodynamic (BIOD) Wines, and Least Significant Difference (LSD)

	Vintage		Winemaking protocol		Growing area
	2015	2016	BIOD	CONV	A	B	C
Perceived Quality F-value	3.66 b	2.98 a	3.49 a	3.15 a	3.58 a	3.01 a	3.37 a
	17.34**		4.38 ns		4.12 ns
Typicality F-value	4.91 a	5.08 a	5.48 a	4.49 a	5.22 a	5.22 a	4.54 a
	0.10 ns		3.59 ns		0.75 ns

Notes: Same letter within the same row indicates no significant difference, for LSD

** Significance at p ≤ 0.01; ns: not significant (p > 0.05).

Abbreviations: A, B, C, biodynamic wineries.