Teacher educators’ engagement with school-based assessments across Irish teacher education programmes

ABSTRACT

There is a shift towards increased accountability and assessment in schools and this is echoed in an Irish context, with assessment a neglected area of study in teacher education programmes. The aim of this study is to explore teacher educators understanding of school-based assessment practices and how they prepare pre-service teachers to assess in schools. Interviews with a sample of teacher educators attached to 13 Irish teacher education programmes, residing in two associated higher education institutes, conveyed the policy implications of curriculum change, the need for assessment literacy professional development and the consideration of standalone assessment modules or an embedded approach to assessment in teacher education programmes.

KEYWORDS:

• Assessment
• teacher educator
• assessment literacy
• teacher education

Introduction

The complexity of the multiple functions of assessment in teacher education puts demands on teacher educators for which they might not feel they are sufficiently prepared, with an acknowledgement that assessment has not gained sufficient attention in teacher education (DeLuca et al. 2019; Smith 2011). Assessment is complex because it can be any number of diverse and multi-layered approaches used to gauge learning, with those administering assessments constantly making judgements on the effectiveness of the assessment. Due to the different needs of learners and, by association, identifying the most effective assessment practices to address the needs of the majority of learners in a class without spending an unreasonable amount of time on the assessment component, continual decision making is central to the administration of assessment practices. Cochran-Smith (2001) explained that the ‘outcomes question’ that drives teacher education includes debates about (i) what impacts teacher education should be expected to have on teacher learning, professional practice and student learning and (ii) how, by whom and for what purposes, outcomes should be documented, demonstrated and/or measured. We contend that the ‘outcomes question’ in Irish education, and by association teacher education in Ireland, has more recently become a reality, with an appreciation that it is in teachers’ and students’ best interest that teachers develop a level of understanding about assessment (Popham 2011). It is imperative that pre-service teachers (PSTs) are educated to make assessment decisions that will engage and motivate students and, as a result, enhance learning. That is, improve teacher quality and demonstrate impact on student outcomes.

Richmond, Salazar, and Jones (2019) identify developing assessments that are informative, scalable and accepted by the majority of experts in teacher education as a persistent challenge. We believe there is a necessity to explore further the precursor to such a challenge. The aim of this study was to interrogate the extent to which teacher educators understand school-based assessment practices and how they prepare PSTs to assess in schools. We, therefore, direct our attention to related literature that is aligned with teacher education, and specifically teacher educators, rather than the broader context of assessment in higher education and teachers’ use of assessment in schools.

It is important to reiterate that exploring the practices associated with the assessment of PSTs to determine their readiness to be qualified as beginning teachers/ accreditation purposes (Chung 2008; Evans et al. 2006) is not the focus of this study. As Smith (2016) emphasises, qualifying teachers is only one function of assessment in teacher education. Claims that preparing future teachers to become assessors for, and of, student learning is at least an equally important function of assessment in teacher education. Smith (2016) reflects on how PSTs learn about assessment from an assessor’s perspective, as a built-in part of teaching is formative and summative assessment. Acknowledging that formal learning of assessment can take place (e.g. modules in assessment), Smith (2016) suggests that more important is the teacher educators’ modelling of assessment PSTs are exposed to during their initial teacher education (ITE) programme. She poses the question, ‘Do teacher educators practice what they preach in relation to assessment, and especially assessment which enhances learning?’(406). Our specific interest in this paper is in exploring the following research questions; (1) In what ways do teacher educators heighten PSTs’ exposure to current assessment practices in Irish schools and (2) What are the current assessment practices being promoted in teacher education programmes?

Assessment literacy

Assessment literacy has been defined as the skills and knowledge teachers require to measure and support student learning through assessment (Brookhart 2011; Popham 2013). Mertler (2004) definition of assessment literacy identifies what such skills and knowledge entail, including the ability to identify effective assessment methods, select practices that ensure dependable data is retrieved on student achievement, and communicate assessment results in a manner that involves and motivates student learning. A teacher educator’s confidence in assessment literacy is central to determining the extent to which they are committed to producing teachers capable of meeting the assessment challenges of schools. One of the few studies that has explored a teacher educator’s assessment literacy (Popham 2011) contends that, to effectively facilitate assessment literacy in a teacher education programme, a course in assessment (rather than a brief mention of assessment in a course) is necessary to bring a more complete understanding of assessment to PSTs. Indeed, it has been suggested that assessment is a content domain that ought to be included in opportunities for teacher educators’ professional development (InFo-TED 2015). In exploring the role of assessment in teacher education, Smith and MacPhail (2019) contend that the main question to ask is if there is sufficient knowledge about, and competence in, effectively advocating for, and delivering, appropriate assessment practices among teacher educators working in the same institute. Influenced by the work of Cohen (1987), they explain that meaningful and coherent ITE programmes and school programmes in any subject area reflect an alignment among learning goals, assessments that determine if PSTs and school students reach those goals, and the instructional practices that provide PSTs and school students the opportunity to achieve success. They reiterate that it is essential that teacher educators not only have the skillset to enact instructional alignment through their own delivery but also the capacity to impart such a central and essential pedagogy to PSTs.

There has been more of a focus in the literature on examining the assessment literacy of PSTs than on teacher educators. Within this focus, there is a level of consistency across studies that highlight PSTs reporting low competency levels in assessment literacy (DeLuca and Bellara 2013; Volante and Fazio 2007). By identifying gaps in PSTs’ assessment literacy development, DeLuca and Klinger (2010) support the need for direct instruction in assessment with specific topics identified (e.g. articulating a philosophy of assessment, modifying assessments) as important to developing PST assessment literacy.

Assessment in higher education

While accountability and assessment have increasingly become a focus of educational policy and standards, research has suggested that assessment is a neglected area of study in teacher education (La Marca 2006; Stiggins 1999), with beginning teachers subsequently being unprepared to implement assessment in schools (Herppich et al. 2018; Looney et al. 2018; Xu and Brown 2016). With this increased focus on accountability in schools, numerous models have been proposed to address assessment, yet a dearth of research has been conducted to support their design or effectiveness. It is imperative that how and where assessment education is situated within teacher education, and the philosophical perspective of those delivering it, be understood if PSTs are to develop as sufficiently competent to guide instruction and facilitate student learning within accountability driven education systems.

In research focused on how to prepare PSTs through assessment education (DeLuca and Klinger 2010; Richardson and Placier 2001), questions have emerged about the effectiveness of assessment coursework (Hill et al. 2014) and assessment embedded within teaching practice (DeLuca and Klinger 2010). Hill et al. (2017) suggest intertwining assessment across all coursework, observation of teaching and learning and school placement as viable assessment education components of teacher education programmes. Regardless of how this is to be embraced, it is essential to ensure that messages received by PSTs from teacher educators and teachers are consistent and coherent.

Assessment education is in a constant state of flux due to ever-changing educational policies and/or in response to changing curricular initiatives in schools. This poses an ongoing challenge to teacher education programmes in educating PSTs for traditional assessment practices (context that was), to interpret and apply new policy (context that is), and to prepare for future changes to assessment that will emerge (context that will be). Within this challenge is addressing teacher educators understanding of assessment, pedagogy and curriculum, all of which are directly linked in the design and delivery of teaching for student learning, with each holding a set of specialised knowledge and practices that inform and govern implementation.

With the complex nature of assessment education (Hill and Eyers 2016; Smith 2011; Wyatt-Smith and Looney 2016) acknowledging the role of teacher education in preparing PSTs, identifying appropriate content and designing the format in which it will be developed are critical. Smith (2016) outlines two functions of assessment within teacher education; (i) assessment for the purpose of meeting the learning outcomes of a programme and (ii) teaching PSTs about assessment. If PSTs are expected to make assessment decisions, that enhance learning by engaging and motivating students, it is imperative that the source of this education is analysed and interrogated (Brevik, Blikstad-Balas, and Lyngvær Engelien 2017). Russell (1999, cited in Lunenberg, Korthagen, and Swennen 2007) argues that ‘If genuine change is to occur in schools, then those changes may have to occur FIRST in teacher education. It is certainly not enough for teacher educators to advocate changes that they have not achieved in their own practices’ (589). Developing and maintaining teacher quality is a responsibility that extends across the teacher education continuum and continues over time. Given that ITE initiates the continuum process, it is important to address the role of teacher educators in teaching assessment philosophies (how PSTs develop their assessment philosophy) and practices within teacher education programmes.

Assessment in Irish teacher education

Assessment discourse in Ireland is relatively new with minimal development of assessment policy guidelines within the Irish education system, and limited discussion within teacher education on preparing PSTs to undertake assessment in schools. Despite momentum from teachers focused on student learning and the publics’ interest in learning outcomes and quality schooling (Hall 2000), Looney (2006) noted that neither assessment policy nor assessment practice was recognised as strengths in the Irish education system, ultimately inhibiting teachers’ enactment of assessment.

Focusing on assessment, educational reform in Ireland saw the introduction of the new Framework for Junior Cycle (DES 2015) in 2014. Within this Framework are subject specifications (replacing old syllabi) identifying student expectations through student-centred learning outcomes (Priestley 2016) that ‘describe the knowledge, understanding, skills and values students should be able to demonstrate after a period of learning’ (DES 2015, 10). Student assessment practices moved away from a system where student achievement was determined solely by a final state examination to a dual approach to assessment. The new assessment practices emphasise formative assessment in classrooms where feedback is provided on the status of where the student is in their learning, where they need to go and how to most effectively get there. While education across post primary in Ireland has seen these new curricular initiatives and assessment strategies being employed (e.g. classroom-based assessment), limited assessment-related research is available in Irish teacher education at primary or post primary with respect to how teacher educators prepare PSTs to confidently undertake implementation in schools to facilitate student learning. Emerging studies, at both levels, have examined primary PSTs’ ability to demonstrate assessment literacy during school placement (Macken, MacPhail, and Calderon 2020) and teacher educators use of constructivist pedagogies to aid post-primary PST understanding of instructional alignment (MacPhail, Tannehill, and Goc Karp 2013).

Recent assessment-related research in Irish higher education has implications for teacher education. Responsible for leading and advising teaching and learning across higher education, The National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education (National Forum) was established in 2012. As a result of consultation with stakeholders, Assessment of/for/as Learning in higher education was chosen by the National Forum as an enhancement theme in 2015 with the intent of improving student learning. This enhancement theme promoted strategic dialogue on assessment and feedback in Irish higher education (O’Neill, McEvoy, and Maguire 2020). The main goal of the theme was to engage teacher educators to empower students in assessment and feedback processes by moving from what was the current dominant emphasis on assessment of learning towards assessment for, and as, learning. One activity employed within the enhancement theme was local and national conversations undertaken across Irish higher education to develop a national understanding of assessment (O’Neill, McEvoy, and Maguire 2020).

These conversations informed a national understanding of assessment and feedback with a view to supporting the assessment literacy of teacher educators and students in Irish higher education. The intent was to work with those in higher education interested in, and with an expertise on, assessment and feedback, as a means of developing a group to advocate for a collective understanding of the topic. It can be suggested that the greatest value of this project was the development of an enhanced ‘conceptualisation of what key assessment terms mean, how they relate to each other and how they manifest in practice’ (O’Neill, McEvoy, and Maguire 2020, 507).

A national understanding of assessment serves as a basis for assessment design within curricula across Irish higher education. This is where teacher education might be most fully engaged and benefit from this enhancement project, engaging in local and national discussion among teacher educators. This study set out to explore the extent to which teacher educators understand school-based assessment practices and how they prepare PSTs to assess in schools.

Methodology

Programmes

The complement of 14 ITE programmes that resided in either one specific university or one specific college of education were identified as the sample of programmes. This resulted in targeting both undergraduate teacher education programmes and Professional Masters in Education (PME) programmes (primary and post-primary). Each of the programmes consisted of subject-specific modules, education modules and school placement. The education modules covered a variety of areas (e.g. philosophy of education, educational technology, contemporary issues in education, understanding learning, inclusive education, assessment and curriculum studies). Ethical approval was granted from the two associated institutes.

Participants

The course directors of the 14 ITE programmes were approached to take part in interviews exploring, on behalf of the ITE programme to which they were aligned, the teaching and development of assessment philosophies and practices to PSTs within the programme. The final sample constituted 11 course directors and two colleagues attached to an ITE programme. Table 1 denotes the role of each participant and the type of ITE programme in which they were involved.

Table 1. Participants and associated ITE programme.

Participant	Position	Programme
1 Male	Course Director	Undergraduate Post Primary
2 Male	Course Director	PME Post Primary
3 Female	Course Director	PME Post Primary
4 Female	Course Director	Undergraduate Post Primary
5 Female	Member of programme team	Undergraduate Primary
6 Female	Course Director	PME Post Primary
7 Female	Course Director	PME Post Primary
8 Male	Course Director	PME Post Primary
9 Male	Course Director	PME Post Primary
10 Male	Member of programme team	Undergraduate Post Primary
11 Female	Course Director	PME Primary
12 Female	Course Director	PME Primary
13 Male	Course Director	Undergraduate Post Primary

Methods

Eleven one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with a twelfth interview conducted with two teacher educators from the same ITE programme (both participants developed and delivered the module in question and as such requested to be interviewed together). Interview questions focused on the two main research questions: (1) In what ways do teacher educators heighten PSTs’ exposure to current assessment practices in Irish schools and (2) What are the current assessment practices being promoted in teacher education programmes? The interviews took place face-to-face and lasted between 30 and 65 min. All three authors shared the responsibility for interviewing. On completion, interviews were transcribed verbatim and returned to the respective participants to provide an opportunity for them to validate responses (Bryman 2008; Lincoln and Guba 1985).

Analysis

Data were analysed inductively (Lincoln and Guba 1985; Patton 1990). Data from the interview transcripts were read carefully to draw out themes and common elements from the data. Individual responses to questions were examined to reveal specific thoughts or perceptions that were then compared across interviews. Categories were then refined to represent the factors that conveyed the extent to which assessment discourses and practices were evident across ITE programmes. This process of coding (Corbin and Strauss 1990) began with open coding whereby line by line analysis occurred to identify concepts and categories. During this phase, to preserve integrity, the emerging codes were labelled as others were, thus allowing for data reduction (Schreier 2012). This was followed by axial coding, a process that allows connections to be made between categories and then finally, selective coding which resulted in a core category being identified, thus ‘generating a story’ (Corbin and Strauss 1990). To enhance trustworthiness, the authors met on a regular basis to discuss and clarify the constructed categories. Table 2 provides an example of the coding process demonstrating how the overarching theme of ‘situating assessment’ emerged from the inductive analysis of data.

Table 2. Example of the three phases of coding (Corbin and Strauss 1990).

Open codes	Axial codes	Selective code
Assessment philosophies	Discussing assessment philosophies	Situating Assessment: functional and philosophical considerations
Conflicting philosophies
Creating a shared vision
Impact of previous experience
Philosophy driven by policy
Challenging staff assumptions of assessment
Example of departmental collaboration	Lack of a unified programmatic approach to assessment
Inconsistent approach to discussing and implementing assessment
Knowledge of programmatic approach to assessment
Lack of a unified departmental approach
Lack of cross programme communication
Lack of knowledge of assessment practices	Individual approaches to assessment
Lack of awareness of
assessment practices across programmes
Module planning

Findings

Three overarching themes, each with several subthemes, were identified and include (1) Situating assessment: functional and philosophical considerations, (2) assessment literacy and (3) modelling assessment.

Situating assessment: functional and philosophical considerations

Discussing assessment philosophies

The discussion around assessment philosophies garnered a variety of responses and conflicting approaches to assessment. The conflicts add to the complex nature of teaching assessment across programmes. Findings revealed the dichotomy between the functional and philosophical consideration of assessment in ITE programmes. There was a preference for teacher educators to revert to discussing approaches they use to determine if PSTs have successfully completed modules in the programme (i.e. different types of assessment tasks included in the programme). Teacher educators were less comfortable, or unable, to discuss the deliberate ways in which programmes prepare PSTs to effectively assess school students. Some teacher educators were solely reliant on discussing the value of teaching assessment practices to PSTs (without worked examples) while others were able to share specific examples of where, throughout the ITE programme, PSTs had opportunities to experience assessment philosophies and practices that could be considered appropriate to teaching in schools (e.g. where the development of assessment practice included a departmental collaborative approach that positioned assessment discourse and related practices throughout a module, enabling PSTs to learn and live assessment experiences).

The issue of conflicting philosophies across initial teacher educators was raised in terms of being members of large Schools of Education (SoE) where there is no agreed approach to the teaching of assessment across a programme. There was a belief that such inconsistencies in approaches lead to PSTs being confused as to the purpose and practice of assessment. This was also compounded by the structure within the SoE, which was made up of inter-faculty staff who had diverse opinions of assessment. One teacher educator in a SoE noted:

We don't espouse an overarching philosophy of assessment. What we do is talk about assessment in general terms. We try to look at it from an evidence-base practice perspective because it's a section of a broader module. So yeah, I don't think we have a broader, grander assessment philosophy (10)

Three teacher educators discussed focussed and innovative assessment philosophies. Two of the three described how they view assessment as an integral aspect of a programme and that PSTs are challenged on their own assessment philosophies:

It's that sense of embedding assessment as part of the whole teaching and learning cycle. And that it isn't that add-on at the end, or it isn't that test on a Friday, and we really challenge their [pre-service teachers] assumptions at the very start of the module, in the sense of what did assessment look like when they were students? And was it that thing that they feared, and that they were afraid of … And we then try and bring it back to, what's the purpose of assessment, then? Is it to be the top of your game, or is it to be the child that's failing in the class? And why do we engage in assessment at all? (11)

The idea of challenging PSTs’ assumptions, and sharing their philosophy that assessment should be a core element of teaching and learning, was achievable in this case given that the two teacher educators were co-module leaders of an assessment module where they strove to embed the role of assessment in effective teaching and learning. Another teacher educator stated that she shared her assessment philosophy with PSTs and reinforced that assessment must be relevant and meaningful to the learner. In doing so, she mirrored effective assessments with PSTs to reflect why assessment is carried out in schools, wanting PSTs to appreciate the position of assessment in effective teaching and learning:

I would really like them to use assessment to recognize the whole potential that has to offer in terms of student learning and, at the same time, teaching, so that the students are able to learn that loop of assessment, for the student in guiding my teaching. (7)

The sentiment of PSTs experiencing learning and assessment as a philosophy was mirrored by two other teacher educators in describing their assessment philosophies. In discussing assessment philosophy, the remaining teacher educator tended to reflect on their thoughts on the role of assessing PSTs in higher education rather than teaching PSTs how to assess in schools.

Individual approaches to assessment

When discussing programmatic issues, most teacher educators mentioned that individual departments attempt a unified approach to the development of assessment practices. However, it appeared that the unified approach was more to do with discussing and mapping PSTs’ assessments rather than the mapping of teaching assessment philosophies and practices to PSTs. This clarifies the functional consideration of assessment shared by many teacher educators.

A number of teacher educators stressed the importance of having a variety of assessment modes so ‘that the students actually experience different assessment techniques’ (10). Teacher educators reported that PSTs were provided with an opportunity to learn about assessment, although not explicitly, by completing assessment tasks attached to their programme of study. This implied a reliance on PSTs learning about assessment philosophies and practices through the process of osmosis.

Ultimately, the lack of communication and collaboration between colleagues, modules leaders and SoEs was judged to negatively impact the learning experience for PSTs, particularly in assessment and understanding how to utilise assessment in applied situations.

Assessment literacy

Addressing assessment literacy and continuous professional development

Curriculum change in Irish schools appeared to be the instigator for many of the teacher educators to readdress how they approach assessment or acknowledge that they do not incorporate sufficient applied assessment in their teaching. Acknowledging a deficiency in their assessment literacy, one teacher educator commented:

I could probably do a better job [with assessment], and it's maybe at the moment, it's quickly changing in terms of second level schools and it's not something that I've embedded into my teaching yet because you're trying to see what's happening because let's say, for example, the [subject discipline] subjects there's only draft specifications out at the moment and the subjects are still being taught, as they have been for the last thirty years (2)

Many of the ITE programmes have been playing catch up in terms of assessment practices, prompted more recently in response to educational reform, with teacher educators amending programmes and modules to reflect changes such as classroom-based assessments and incorporating new assessment-related terminology into their teaching. It was acknowledged that while, at an institute level, professional development can be provided, the individual was responsible for acknowledging their deficiencies in terms of knowledge and understanding of assessment.

It was also shared that there is a need for SoEs and departments to do more work on the alignment of teaching assessment philosophies and practices across programmes, and that assessment needs to be embedded in some form throughout all modules, leading to the consideration of assessment as a ‘permeative model’.

Collaboration as a form of assessment professional development

Various comments were made relative to specific forms of assessment-related professional development for teacher educators. One teacher educator discussed the need for creating a shared vision around the teaching of assessment by upskilling colleagues on the purpose and practice of assessment and how assessment can cross curriculum boundaries and not be viewed as something that is detached and taught in isolation:

In the sense that I think we should be getting together as a group and trying to coordinate and streamline the different experiences that the students have. So, it's not all the exact same, so that they learn how to translate that into their own practice. You can't do that if you're getting in every single module ‘complete an essay’. You get a very narrow understanding of what assessment is from that (10)

An area of best practice around departmental collaboration was described by one teacher educator whereby members of the department worked together to embed assessment throughout a module. This structured approach allowed PSTs to view and experience assessment aligned with clear learning outcomes and instructional/curriculum design:

It's been a nice transition that [name of colleague] will focus three or four weeks strictly on what is assessment, go through all the terminology, go through all the concepts. Go through what we're trying to do with it. And [name of colleague] will finish up with the vehicle to get between the two, the teaching strategies and instructional stuff (1)

Interestingly, one of the barriers to collaboration when discussing assessment literacy was the view that some colleagues were reluctant to discuss their teaching of assessment. For one teacher educator, the idea of hosting discussions across modules on assessment philosophies and aligned assessments would encourage consistent messages being conveyed to PSTs. However, when discussions regarding sharing assessment practices and suggesting a process of streamlining were raised, some colleagues felt threatened:

Some people were like, ‘Well, this is interrogation.’ Both of us said, ‘No. We just want to say this is what I'm doing’ (7)

Assessment in programmes: alignment versus standalone module

When discussing programmatic structures related to PSTs’ learning of assessment philosophies and practices, issues were raised around the process of having standalone assessment modules and the separation of subject content knowledge modules and pedagogical content knowledge modules. Teacher educators stated that some of the modules they taught focused specifically on content knowledge and practical skills rather than integrating pedagogy:

I explicitly look at it [assessment] through … that subject lens and don't really look at it from a general sense because there are other modules that the students take, such as preparing for school placement, so there's a significant treatment of assessment in there but that's more general and I go more specific in the pedagogy module (2)

One teacher educator admitted to not having pedagogy threaded through modules and that they do not ‘spend much time in the modules talking about assessment practices and different types of assessments and so on’ (13):

I don't teach it. I presume it's taught in the subject pedagogic modules. But my modules are very specific. I'm the subject specialist, but those modules aren't designed to teach the pedagogy (13)

One programme took the approach where the teaching of assessment was distributed across a four-year programme in the absence of specific modules on assessment. In one specific programme, three to four lectures were dedicated to the teaching of assessment, while on another programme there was a dedicated module for assessment, referred to as a standalone assessment module. Two of the teacher educators involved in the standalone assessment module noted that the module provided the space to teach about assessment, interrogate a variety of assessment methods and develop PSTs’ understanding around assessment. One of the teacher educators responsible for running the module highlighted that the external examiner for the programme commented that the standalone assessment module was a model of ‘exemplary practice’ with respect to the focus on assessment.

When questioned about their assessment practices within modules, teacher educators admitted to treating assessment as a discrete component rather than being an integral aspect of teaching. This was reinforced by a teacher educator who stated that they did not believe there was sufficient structure around assessment and its formal delivery in modules, describing it as a ‘by-product of everything else’ (13). The incorporation of an explicit module on assessment in each ITE programme was a suggested solution by many teacher educators to the piecemeal delivery and engagement with assessment.

Modelling assessment

Lack of direct assessment instruction

When initially asking teacher educators about their teaching of assessment practices, there was confusion as to what was meant by ‘teaching of assessment’. Over 20 comments described ways in which teacher educators assessed their PSTs and the hope was that, in the absence of explicit teaching of assessment philosophies and practices, PSTs would appreciate the complexities of enacting assessment practices through assessment requirements for modules and the programme:

We use assessment for learning quite a lot with the way that we teach here. I think that would be something you'd hope students would take into their school placements, and into their schools (8)

There was evidence of teacher educators becoming more aware of the importance of teaching assessment philosophies and practices and how to do it effectively, and, by association, the need to challenge their own assumptions and understanding of assessment:

I guess it is something I've worked on over the last couple of years and that my own experience of coming through a teacher education programme was assessment happened at the end, and you never really got any feedback during the course of the semester. Whereas what I do now with PME [Professional Master in Education] students in the module that I teach in the first semester, I have ongoing work where I use a traffic light system to give students an indication as to where they're at. Really trying to embrace this whole idea of assessment for learning and it works quite well. (2)

Modelling and replicating assessment

The connection made by many teacher educators was that their understanding of assessment, particularly formative assessment, had improved over time. This increased their confidence with respect to being able to model best practice to their PSTs who, in turn, would replicate this practice on School Placement. Some teacher educators admitted to changing their teaching language to replicate terminology occurring in schools as well as ensuring PSTs are aware that assessment is part of the planning process for the modules:

We show them that it's [assessment] very much part of the planning process, and it's not something that's added on or bolted on at the end. It's something that's integral to the planning and the preparation and the delivery of programmes. Yeah, it's a very open process as well, so the students are aware of what we do to integrate assessment. So hopefully, they'd be following a similar path when they go into schools (5)

Teacher educators discussed the range of formative assessments they have started to include in their practice. While not being explicit in teaching PSTs how to appropriately incorporate assessment into their planning for school placement, it does convey a level of understanding of formative assessment:

I think I mentioned earlier about how I explained to the students why I'm using a particular instrument to assess a particular type of learning, that's probably the only example I can think of. So again, it's just about modelling. I don't explicitly teach that stuff. So it's really just by modelling, I think. I don't go anywhere beyond that myself (13)

One teacher educator mentioned their use of portfolios, presentations, feedback and the increased use of assessment terminology:

I think they [PSTs] are aware of that [assessment] language, primarily because we use it with them. A colleague used it a lot as well in terms of his modules, he used the traffic light system for formative assessment, even in my own first year modules, it's all formative assessment (4)

The importance of modelling best practice around assessment was highlighted as key when teaching PSTs, as well as exposing them to a variety of different methods. One example of modelling was described as encouraging the PSTs to experience the assessment as if they were school students to ensure they are engaged and understand the process:

I suppose role play to a certain degree, they were role playing students and I was role playing the teacher … in one sense you'd be trying to mimic good practice, so you'd be trying to do things and saying that, you should be doing this as well, so I'll direct my questions and I'll get you into groups, I'll get you to work in pairs, I'll set you little mini projects, things like this (9)

Another example of modelling authentic assessment was through a standalone module on assessment where the module leaders started by encouraging PSTs to understand the process of how children learn and how assessment fits with that. They then stress the importance of incorporating assessment into the cyclical process of planning and embedding assessment into their practice.

Discussion

In this study, we explore the extent to which teacher educators understand school-based assessment practices and how they prepare PSTs to assess in schools. In doing so we presented the realities and challenges teacher educators faced in supporting PSTs in the development of assessment literacy (understanding) and practice. We have identified four discussion points.

Teacher educators’ understanding of teaching assessment philosophies and practices

Addressing assessment in philosophical or functional terms was peppered throughout the findings and allowed us to discuss teacher educators’ understanding, dispositions and experiences of assessment. Many of the teacher educators reverted to discussing when, how and why they approached assessment and had to be reminded that the focus of the study was on how teacher educators approach the teaching of assessment practices rather than how PSTs are assessed within programmes. For many teacher educators, their lack of confidence and knowledge in the teaching of assessment philosophies and practices led to a level of confusion between the two assessment functions (assessment for meeting the learning outcomes of a programme and teaching PSTs about assessment) (Smith 2016), with many of the teacher educators preferring to discuss how they assess PSTs. Some teacher educators highlighted that the inconsistent approach to teaching assessment was due to the disjointed nature of the teacher education courses (DeLuca and Volante 2016), where they found themselves teaching in isolation and structures for communication and collaboration amongst teacher educators were lacking.

The findings convey some evidence of enhanced assessment discourse and innovative collaborative teaching of assessment practices. Acknowledging the period of curriculum change and a greater emphasis on school-based assessment (MacPhail et al. 2018), some teacher educators detailed how they were conscious of upskilling to integrate new methods of formative assessment, i.e. classroom-based assessments and incorporating new assessment-related terminology (e.g. learning intentions, success criteria) into their teaching. This extended to some teacher educators attempting to embed the teaching of assessment practices throughout specific modules. We anticipate that this level of professional engagement, and the initiation of the National Forum in Ireland and its focus on assessment in higher education, will lead to the promotion of strategic dialogue on assessment in Irish higher education (O’Neill, McEvoy, and Maguire 2020).

Addressing assessment literacy issues

The fact that many teacher educators preferred to discuss how they assessed PSTs rather than how they teach assessment practices aligns with a previous finding that assessment literacy in an Irish context needs to be addressed with teacher educators (InfoTed 2015). We are proposing that this endeavour is acknowledged with teacher educators in ITE programmes to extend the effectiveness of the continuum of teacher education. The International Forum for Teacher Educator Development (InfoTed) (2015) stresses, ‘the important role of well-prepared and highly qualified teacher educators to prepare the next generation of teachers’ (342). A pivotal aspect of this is ensuring that assessment literacy is part of teacher educators’ professional development. This can be linked to teacher educators’ assessment confidence. It is this that is key to helping PSTs to understand the application of effective assessment practices. Smith and MacPhail (2019) question whether teacher educators have sufficient knowledge and competence in delivering assessment and that this is irrevocably linked to confidence in instructional alignment. Many of the teacher educators failed to make the connection between assessment and its place in the instructional alignment triad of pedagogy, curriculum and assessment, with some actively separating subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge.

The positioning of assessment in ITE programmes

Aligned with the preferred suggestion of Popham (2011) and DeLuca and Bellara (2013) with respect to how to most successfully embed assessment in teacher education programmes, only one ITE programme had a standalone module on assessment. The teacher educators involved in this specific module argued that it provided them with the space to teach about assessment, interrogate a variety of assessment methods and develop PSTs’ understanding around assessment. Challenging this, the remaining teacher educators believed that the alignment of teaching assessment philosophies and practices should happen across programmes and be embedded throughout all modules. This conveys the teacher educators’ preference that assessment does not occur in isolation but rather considers positioning assessment as a ‘permeative model’. This is supported by Hill et al. (2014) who suggest that ‘one dedicated assessment course is not enough, on its own, to bring about the substantial changes required to prepare assessment literate teachers’ (107). We suggest that relying on a standalone assessment module could potentially maintain the divide between those with assessment interest and expertise being involved in the standalone module and others remaining uneducated and unexposed to related assessment considerations.

The effectiveness of modelling assessment practices

Some level of modelling assessment practices occurred (Smith 2016) and, whilst not always explicit, the teacher educators conveyed aspects of awareness of innovative approaches to teaching assessment philosophies and practices. This included incorporating more assessment language, aligning assessment with appropriately constructed learning experiences, and allowing opportunities for PSTs to ‘live’ assessment techniques. These examples are few and are possibly linked to teacher educators having a lack of necessary knowledge and skills with assessment to use modelling effectively (Lunenberg, Korthagen, and Swennen 2007). Modelling assessment practice in and of itself is not enough if we want PSTs to understand how and when to use assessment in their teaching. While modelling has been used effectively in assessment research (Macken, MacPhail, and Calderon 2020; MacPhail, Tannehill, and Goc Karp 2013), it was combined with mentoring, scaffolding and numerous constructivist pedagogies as a means of teaching PSTs assessment practices. The implicit teaching of assessment by some teacher educators, believing that PSTs would learn assessment practices through being assessed on a module, aligns with research reporting that explicit modelling is not common among teacher educators (Lunenberg, Korthagen, and Swennen 2007).

Conclusion

In an Irish context, assessment discourse is moving towards teachers assessing their own students’ work and implementing extensive Assessment for Learning (AfL) strategies. We suggest it is this needs to be threaded throughout all pedagogy-related modules in teacher education programmes and suggest that with recent curriculum and policy change, and as a result a rise in accountability mandates, that assessment begins to ‘occupy a more prominent and necessary role in pre-service preparatory programs’ (DeLuca et al. 2019). By association, this should enhance assessment literacy professional development opportunities for teacher educators. Aligned with Hill et al. (2017), and in support of this study’s teacher educators’ preference, we argue that the teaching of assessment practices needs to be dispersed and revisited across a programme to effectively prepare PSTs. This is also timely in light of the introduction of ‘Céim: Standards for Initial Teacher Education’ (Teaching Council 2020) that recognises the ‘complex and critical role that all stakeholders play and that are central to the ongoing development of ITE programmes’ (p. 166). Central to this is the positioning of teacher educators and their ability to teach using an enhanced focus on the integration and application of knowledge in relation to assessment and the key principles of assessment (Teaching Council 2020).

An implication of this study, which could resonate internationally, would be the initiation of national and local conversations among teacher educators across Ireland, which would serve as a strategy to identify pedagogical assessment strategies to help PSTs improve their practice and the learning of their students. These conversations would facilitate discussion between teacher educators with expertise in various areas of the field (e.g. assessment, pedagogy, technology, professional development) in highlighting not only assessment strategies but how to engage PSTs in learning why, what, how and when to use them. After all, assessment is one component, along with pedagogy and curriculum, essential for instructionally aligned teaching and learning. Outcomes from these conversations shared at various institutes in different subject areas might result in collaborative research to better inform our work in supporting teacher educators in preparing PSTs for assessing effectively in the school context. This has implications on a national and international level as formalised professional conversations between teacher educators on the integration of assessment across ITE programmes can strengthen understanding and provide professional development opportunities.

Effective school-university partnerships can enhance both teacher educators’ and PSTs’ understanding of assessment (Hill et al. 2017) by intertwining the teaching of assessment with PSTs’ experience of assessment on school placement. Hill et al. (2017) state that it is essential that messages received by PSTs from teacher educators and cooperating teachers is consistent and coherent. Sharing of information through school-university handbooks and holding three-way conferences between the teacher educator, the cooperating teacher and the PST can lead to a shared understanding of assessment practices.

Internationally, the problem of fragmentation across the continuum of teacher education is significant with insufficient linkages being made between the stages of the continuum (Hudson 2017). The challenge is to encourage the various stages of the continuum to inform and communicate with each other. This is reinforced by InfoTED (2015) who state that ‘effective collaboration between teacher educators working in different settings’ is needed to ensure professional expertise of those teacher educators working along the continuum. Ideally, the development of assessment practices for teaching should be mapped and aligned across the teacher education continuum in a bid to ensure that those working in each stage of the continuum are aware of each other’s assessment teachings. This can be extended by having teacher educators working across the continuum (e.g. with teachers and professional development providers) in the development of effective assessment. The topic of the acquisition of assessment theory and training is highly relevant to all teacher education programmes in other settings. The question that needs to be addressed is who is responsible for future teachers’ assessment literacy and whether this responsibility is coordinated effectively in ITE programmes.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ann-Marie Young

Ann-Marie Young is the Academic Director of School Placement in the School of Education at the University of Limerick. Ann-Marie’s research interests include initial teacher education with a focus on the development of the school placement process. Specifically looking at the role each of the key stakeholders play in the development of student teachers.

Ann MacPhail

Ann MacPhail is Assistant Dean Research in the Faculty of Education and Health Sciences and a member of the Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences at the University of Limerick, Ireland. Ann’s research interests include the professional learning needs of teacher educators, practices in (physical education) teacher education programmes and instructional alignment.

Deborah Tannehill

Deborah Tannehill is Emeritus Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Sciences at University of Limerick. Deborah’s teaching, research, and professional service is focused on teaching and teacher education in physical education; continuing professional development, communities of practice, curricular initiatives, and instructional alignment.