Triggers and conducive factors for reflection in university students: a focus group study

ABSTRACT

Although previous research highlights the importance of reflection in higher education, little is known about the type of triggers and contexts that promote authentic reflection in university students who are in academic classroom environments. This qualitative study addresses this question based on content analysis done on eight focus groups consisting of a total of 45 university students. Results revealed that authentic reflection was triggered by adverse and positive situations, challenging interpersonal interactions, emotional responses to events, performance data and proactive enquiry. Furthermore, findings highlighted the relevance of Self-Determination Theory as a guiding framework for describing contextual factors conducive to reflection: student reflection benefited from a positive interactive context, autonomy for reflection, a variety of opportunities to reflect and guidance in the form of mentors or workshops. Conversely, exam pressure and effortful periods reduced the likelihood of student reflection. Finally, results indicated that students engaged in reflection to raise personal awareness, improve academic and personal performance, and change their beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviours. Implications for practice are given.

KEYWORDS:

• Reflection
• university students
• triggers for reflection
• conditions for reflection
• value of reflection
• self-determination theory

Introduction

Reflection is a deliberate act of enquiry (Marshall et al., 2021) which has become an essential part of higher education curriculums due to its value for lifelong learning, decision-making and improving professional practice (Rogers, 2001; van Beveren et al., 2018; Veen & de la Croix, 2017). However, reflective activities in the curriculum such as essays, portfolios, or mentoring meetings do not necessarily guarantee that reflection will actually occur (Brown et al., 2013) or provide a positive experience for college students (F. Wang et al., 2023). Moreover, when these activities are mandatory, they can lead to resentment and negativity toward reflection (Hobbs, 2007), and might steer individuals to follow reflective assignments solely for the purpose of receiving a positive evaluation rather than actually reflecting (de la Croix & Veen, 2018).

Previous research suggests that for authentic reflection to occur, an experience, a trigger, is needed (Kolb, 2015) such as: a confrontation with a challenging situation (Bagheri et al., 2019) or receiving performance data like feedback (Brown et al., 2013). Furthermore, a conducive environment, understood as a facilitating context that provides the opportunity to connect with others, allows individuals’ autonomy to personalise reflection activities, and supports the development of reflective competence, can motivate individuals to engage in reflection. Additionally, when individuals assign a sense of importance and value to reflection, they are more inclined to actively participate in reflective activities (Butani et al., 2017; Plant et al., 2017).

The existing body of literature concerning the triggers for reflection, the specifics of the conducive environment, and the motives on why individuals engage in authentic reflection, primarily focuses on postgraduates, graduates, and interns interacting with their professional fields (e.g. Bagheri et al., 2019; Brown et al., 2013; Butani et al., 2017; Plant et al., 2017). In these settings, individuals are offered experiential learning opportunities, where they can apply theory to practice and develop their skills and reflective thinking through active engagement with ill-defined real-life situations of the professional environment, involving the teacher/trainer, the client, and the staff (Schuler, 2021; Tricio et al., 2015). The applicability and relevance of these findings to university students who are in academic classroom environments and have not yet embarked on professional field training via internships or work placements, remain uncertain. Consequently, there is a knowledge gap pertaining to this particular context, characterised by well-defined classroom problems, limited practical opportunities and less interaction with stakeholders. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore the triggers that stimulate authentic reflection in university students, examine the conducive factors that facilitate and enhance their reflective thinking, and investigate the value students assign to reflection. Obtaining a comprehensive understanding of these aspects can contribute to the development of effective interventions that optimally foster the practice of reflection among university students.

Theoretical background

According to Nguyen et al. (2014), reflection is ‘the process of engaging the self in attentive, critical, exploratory and iterative interactions with one’s thoughts and actions, and their underlying conceptual frame, with a view to changing them and with a view on the change itself’(p. 1182). The dominant frameworks on reflection suggest that reflection requires a prompt or trigger: an experience that leads to exploration of the self with a critical perspective, challenging underlying assumptions, beliefs, and actions (Boyd & Fales, 1983, as cited in Murdoch-Eaton & Sandars, 2014; Nguyen et al., 2014). Previous studies focused on reflective practice have reported that challenging, adverse or uncertain situations are common triggers for reflection (Bagheri et al., 2019; Brown et al., 2013; R. B. Krueger et al., 2020; Marshall et al., 2021; Plant et al., 2017). Similarly, situations that challenge individuals’ knowledge base or make visible a lack of understanding can be an impetus for reflection (R. B. Krueger et al., 2020; Marshall et al., 2021; Plant et al., 2017). Additionally, challenging interpersonal interactions (R. B. Krueger et al., 2020; Plant et al., 2017) as well as emotional responses such as confusion, surprise, hesitation, and unease can lead to reflection (Bagheri et al., 2019; Marshall et al., 2021). Receiving performance data like feedback was also found to be a reflection trigger (Brown et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2020; Plant et al., 2017; Waring, 2013) along with demands for accountability (Bagheri et al., 2019) and challenges to ethics (R. B. Krueger et al., 2020; Marshall et al., 2021). It is interesting to note that reflection does not always require an external trigger; it can be prompted proactively by the individuals themselves, for example with personal reflective routines (Marshall et al., 2021).

In addition to the triggers for reflection, a crucial aspect in the facilitation of reflection is a conducive environment (Plant et al., 2017), a context that motivates individuals to engage in reflective thinking. This current study argues that the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) developed by Deci and Ryan (2012) is a useful framework to understand the creation of a conducive environment for reflection. SDT poses that human intrinsic motivation is influenced by three fundamental psychological needs: relatedness, autonomy and competence. Relatedness refers to the need for individuals to experience a sense of connection and belongingness with others; autonomy involves the need to exercise control over one’s actions, and competence pertains to the need for individuals to feel effective and proficient in their activities (Deci & Ryan, 2012). In the context of reflection, the promotion of relatedness can be achieved by having a mentor who establishes a secure attachment with the individual (Rogers, 2001) and by creating a positive interactive context that allows individuals to be triggered by others (Guo, 2022), in a non-judgmental and confidential setting (Brown et al., 2013). Supporting autonomy in reflection assignments can be attained by providing a variety of opportunities for reflection and letting individuals decide which activity or tool to use (de la Croix & Veen, 2018; Guo, 2022; Marshall et al., 2021), at the appropriate time (Brown et al., 2013; Nguyen et al., 2014; Plant et al., 2017). Lastly, competence in reflection can be cultivated by providing guidance in the form of role models and mentors (Plant et al., 2017) who challenge perspectives and behaviours (Marshall et al., 2021).

Finally, individuals are more likely to engage in reflection when they attribute value to this thinking activity (Butani et al., 2017; Plant et al., 2017). Literature indicates that the value or purpose of reflection can be situated on a personal, interpersonal, or socio-structural level (van Beveren et al., 2018). On a personal level, individuals engage in reflection to achieve personal awareness and (professional) development, obtain agency as a learner, and change their beliefs, attitudes and behaviour. On an interpersonal level, individuals tend to reflect to increase their awareness and understanding of the other, and on a socio-structural level, reflection can serve for relating one’s practice to societal, ethical and cultural contexts, for integrating theory and practice and for helping social transformation (van Beveren et al., 2018).

Due to the fact that these triggers and conducive factors have been empirically identified in contexts where postgraduates, graduates or interns actively interact with their professional field, it is relevant to examine whether these findings apply to students who are exclusively situated in academic classroom environments, where practical opportunities are limited and theoretical knowledge is emphasised. Further, it is relevant to examine the value students attach to reflection so that meaningful reflective activities can be implemented in the classroom.

Methods

Participants

Participants were recruited at Maastricht University, a large Dutch university with a learner-centred approach in which students partake in small-scale Problem-Based Learning (PBL). A research participation system and information leaflets were used to attract participants, and compensation was provided in the form of research participation credit or monetary reward. In total, 45 students participated in this study (35 women and 10 men). The mean age of the respondents was 22 (SD = 3,29), and in relation to nationality, 89% of them possessed European nationality. All participants pursued a study in the field of behavioural and social sciences (71% bachelor’s students and 29% master’s students). Among the participants, 62% opted for research participation credit, while 38% chose to receive a monetary reward of 15 euros.

This study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee Psychology and Neuroscience of Maastricht University (ERCPN-OZL_241_114_08_2021) in September 2021.

Materials

In order to explore students’ viewpoints, focus groups (FG) were used because their interactive nature allows individuals to react to and build upon the views of other participants (Stewart et al., 2007, as cited in Stalmeijer et al., 2014). A semi-structured scheme was used to guide the discussion towards the main research topics while allowing a natural conversation flow. The scheme was divided into three themes: triggers for reflection, conducive factors for reflection and value of reflection (see Table 1).

Table 1. Semi-structured focus group scheme.

Theme	Questions
Triggers	When was the last time you engaged in reflection?
	Which situations/events motivate you to reflect?
Conducive factors	Which context helps you to reflect?
	Which context obstructs your reflection?
Value/purpose	What is the value/purpose of reflection for you?

Procedure

Study participants received an information letter before the focus group began. After that, participants were able to ask questions and sign an informed consent form. The focus group started with a reminder to students about the purpose of the research. It was also emphasised that all participants shared a common educational setting (PBL), and despite the differences in years of education, every student had valuable insights to contribute. After this, a brief introduction round took place to set the tone for a comfortable environment. The moderator then activated the audio recorder and asked the participants how they defined reflection, to establish a baseline understanding. Students in all focus groups agreed that reflection is engaging with one’s own thoughts and actions in an evaluative manner. Next, the moderator proceeded to follow the semi-structured focus group scheme. After each question, the moderator gave students time to answer, and probing questions were asked to encourage elaboration (e.g. could you elaborate?, what do you mean by…?, how?). The moderator also gave an opportunity to speak to those who did not get the chance to share their response, and when opinions converged toward a majority’s point of view, the moderator asked if somebody had a different experience or opinion to share, as suggested by literature (Acocella, 2012; R. A. Krueger, 1994). Once the scheme was completed, the audio recording ceased, and participants could ask general questions or comment on their focus group experience. Eight focus groups were conducted, each involving five to seven participants and lasting approximately 45–60 minutes. In five of the focus groups, the moderator was the first author, while for the remaining three, the research intern — who possessed sufficient subject matter knowledge to address areas of concern (R. A. Krueger, 1994) — served as the moderator, with the first author acting as the assistant moderator.

Analysis

Focus groups were transcribed and a structured deductive content analysis was performed using ATLAS.ti software. The coding scheme (see Table 2) to analyse the content of the transcripts was derived from the previous research and literature described in the theoretical background section, and inductive codes were used for segments of text that did not depict predetermined codes but were relevant to the research questions (Kyngäs & Kaakinen, 2020). The analysis was carried out by the first author and a research intern. Three triangulation sessions were needed to ensure an acceptable value for inter-coder reliability (Krippendorff’s alpha > .71) (Krippendorff, 2019).

Table 2. Coding scheme.

Theme	Codes	Reference
Triggers	Challenging, adverse or uncertain situations	Brown et al., (2013); Plant et al., (2017); Bagheri et al., (2019); Krueger et al., (2020); Marshall et al., (2021)
	Challenges to knowledge	Plant et al., (2017); R. B. Krueger et al., (2020); Marshall et al., (2021)
	Challenging interpersonal interactions	Plant et al., (2017); R. B. Krueger et al., (2020)
	Emotional responses	Bagheri et al., (2019) Marshall et al., (2021)
	Performance data	Waring, (2013); Brown et al., (2013); Plant et al., (2017); Jones et al., (2020)
	Demands of accountability	Bagheri et al., (2019)
	Challenges to ethics	R. B. Krueger et al., (2020); Marshall et al., (2021)
	Proactive enquiry	Marshall et al., (2021)
Conducive factors	Positive situations	Inductive code
	Positive interactive context	Guo, (2022); Brown et al., (2013)
	Autonomy-supporting environment	de la Croix & Veen, (2018)
	Variety of opportunities	de la Croix & Veen, (2018) Marshall et al., (2021); Guo, (2022)
Value/ purpose	Appropriate time	Brown et al., (2013); Nguyen et al., (2014); Plant et al., (2017)
	Guidance	Plant et al., (2017) Marshall et al., (2021)
	Personal awareness	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Development	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Agency as a learner	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Changing beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviour	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Awareness of the other	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Situate practice in context	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Integrate theory and practice	van Beveren et al., (2018)
	Social transformation	van Beveren et al., (2018)

Results

This section presents the results of the themes, namely the triggers for reflection, conducive factors for reflection, and value of reflection. Selected quotes from the participants (P) will illustrate the codes of each theme. The results abstain from expressing the extensiveness of codes in percentage terms to prevent data misinterpretation.

Triggers for reflection

Participants identified challenging, adverse or uncertain situations, such as perceived failure in personal and academic domains and being confronted with new situations, as influential triggers for reflection. The following quotes offer insight into how students view this particular reflection prompt:

P6, FG4: ‘Failure is never a nice thing because we don’t aim to fail, at least I don’t. … I would say that unpleasant things lead to reflection for me, very much’

P2, FG8: ‘I also think that what triggers reflection is getting out of your comfort zone because sometimes when I keep doing the same thing I just don’t reflect about it but if I meet new people and face new situation I always reflect on how I behave’

Challenging interpersonal interactions such as disagreements, conflicts, misunderstandings and relationships ending in both personal and academic contexts were described as frequent triggers. For example, one student said:

P2, FG1: ‘Relationships ending. You reflect on what I did wrong or what went wrong, what the other person did wrong, and how you take that and be better in the future’

Emotional responses were another recurring trigger for reflection. Students were motivated to reflect on their emotional reactions such as anger, fear, guilt or disappointment with the purpose of understanding and coping with their emotional reactions. The quote below represent this view:

P4, FG6: ‘When I’m stressed or when something gets too much, I start to reflect. The last time I reflected so actively was last week with a friend. We were talking about personal experiences that I had which weren’t nice for me and I was feeling guilty‘

Students emphasised that negative emotions did not initiate reflection immediately but distance was needed from the emotional event to be considered as a trigger. One student explained the need of distance as follows:

P1, FG1: ‘When you have a bad situation you cannot reflect in the middle of it but then afterward, in order to make sense of your reality and calm down, you use reflection’

Performance data in the form of grades or feedback given by teachers or peers was also referred as a relevant trigger for reflection. A student pointed out:

P6, FG8: ‘The most obvious one is receiving feedback through our grades but what we’ve learned from our studies is that we need more detailed feedback’

Proactive enquiry was mentioned by several students, who reported they independently started reflecting to gain a better understanding of the day and grow as a person by means of self-questioning or reviewing the behaviour and feelings of the day. Furthermore, the students’ narratives indicate that this inclination towards proactive enquiry was influenced by their family habits and fields of study, highlighting the potential impact of upbringing and academic context on reflective thinking. Students’ perspectives on proactive enquiry are expressed in the quotes below:

P3, FG3: ‘For me it’s almost every evening, just before I’m going to sleep and I just go over the day in my head and just go what I have actually done?, Am I good with this?. It’s like a recap’

P7, FG7: ‘I don’t live at home anymore but when I did live at home, I had a similar thing with my parents. Like my dad is a clinical psychologist so it’s always been a natural thing’

In spite of the fact that most participants focused on negative or uncomfortable situations as triggers for reflection, an emergent finding indicates that respondents recognised positive results and positive life events, such as obtaining a diploma, as significant triggers for reflection. The following quote exemplifies this specific finding:

P2, FG4: ‘When I try new things and they work out, so … it can be as simple as starting a new study technique and then I pass the exam and then I reflect why this worked’

Students did not report challenges to knowledge, demands of accountability or challenges to ethics as potential triggers for reflection.

Conducive factors for reflection

In terms of the conducive factors for reflection reported by students, several participants identified a positive interactive context as a central factor to facilitate reflection because when they were exposed to the views of their peers, mentors, teachers, and friends, they had the opportunity to consider new aspects of themselves and their actions. It was particularly important to them to feel comfortable and not judged in order to share their reflections. Students describe the value of this positive interactive context as follows:

P5, FG2: ‘We are trying to say is that the perception of yourself is different from the perception others have about yourself, so often in this dialogue there is a lot of insights happening’

P5, FG4: ‘When I reflect in social situations, it is connected to people that I feel comfortable with’

Additionally, the need for an autonomy-supporting environment that allows them to decide how to proceed with a reflective activity or assignment was a key factor mentioned by many of the respondents. Moreover, participants emphasised that forced reflection undermined its authenticity:

P5, FG5: ‘I definitely think that being asked specifically to reflect on something at least takes away the authenticity of something. I will just write something down that may or may not be true. It has to be something that you want to reflect on, that you want to get something out of‘

P7, FG8: ‘A big assignment of reflection… too long and too chaotic and messy with items that I did not think were relevant. My motivation to do it was gone. I felt like I needed to do it just to get a good grade’

To promote reflective thinking and avoid the risk of forced reflection, a variety of opportunities to reflect were thought to be essential. This approach in the voice of the students enables them to reflect at their own preference, selecting activities, assignments and environments that align with their interests:

P4, FG2: ‘You should always have the option to do something for yourself, to write down, to draw, to do something creative, and then share if you want’

Students strongly emphasised the lack of appropriate time for reflection. Their perception of time constraints and demanding tasks was identified as a major barrier to engage in reflective thinking:

P8, FG8: ‘I think actually that I don’t take the time to reflect. I perceive myself being so busy going from a to b to z with so much information that I don’t really have the time or need to sit down and think about a situation‘

When students were in stressful academic periods such as exams or report deadlines, reflection activities were considered a nuisance since all their resources were allocated to dealing with the stressors. Thus, the timing of the reflective assignment or activity was found to be crucial to engage in meaningful reflection:

P4, FG6: ‘I remember when we had the mentor meetings and the reflective portfolio. It was right around the time that exams were around the corner and I was sitting in front of my laptop and I had no time and motivation to do it even though the task is really nice, and everyone agreed, but it was just not the right time to do it in that moment‘

Finally, guidance in the form of clear and concise instructions in reflective assignments, the figure of a mentor or tutor who asks stimulating questions as well as content workshops were perceived as relevant aids to their reflective thinking. The subsequent quotes illustrate the need of guidance:

P4, FG1: ‘I’m putting myself when I was 18, Ok? I had no idea what reflection was. I was studying engineering, it would be helpful if I had known what is reflection and how it benefits me, and how you can use it and stuff like that … because when you say reflection we think different things, so a guideline it’s good‘

P2, FG2: ‘A mentor asks you questions like what you want to do in your future and you have a picture of this but the mentor helps you to take your thoughts to the next level’

Value/Purpose of reflection

All students that took part in the focus groups explained that reflection was valuable to them. Reflection was indicated as an important vehicle for personal awareness. Students perceived reflection as a way to be in ‘touch with oneself ‘and ‘get to know oneself’. In the words of the participants:

P6, FG6: ‘The first thing that comes to mind is awareness because you use it to feel aware of why you are feeling or what you are feeling or where it comes from’

P3, FG7: ‘For meeting yourself, getting to know yourself as a person’

Participants also reported they engaged in reflective thinking because it brought them closer to personal and academic development since reflection allowed them to critically look at their actions and prevent mistakes in the future:

P2, FG3: ‘For me even if I reflect on negative things, after reflecting I feel a step forward to improvement than if I didn’t reflect on it. I feel like I’m growing doing reflection’

P2, FG5: ‘Especially with the improvement mindset it’s very important to look at what happened, and what worked or didn’t work, so you aim to not do the same mistake’

Additionally, students expressed that engaging in reflection helped them change their beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviour. Reflection empowered them to reframe situations, gain new perspectives and adopt new courses of action:

P3, FG1: ‘When you have a situation that you thought was bad but then, in the end, you can see that maybe it wasn’t that bad at all or you see some value in a bad decision or choice’

According to the focus group data, reflection did not play a central role in aiding awareness of the other nor as a tool for social transformation. Reflection was not mentioned as a means to promote agency as a learner, integrate theory and practice or situate practice in context.

Discussion

In this study, focus groups were used to examine the triggers that stimulate authentic reflection in university students, the conducive factors that facilitate and enhance their reflective thinking, and the value students assign to reflection. Results revealed that authentic reflection was triggered by adverse and positive situations, challenging interpersonal interactions, emotional responses to events, performance data and proactive enquiry. Furthermore, student reflection benefited from a positive interactive context, autonomy for reflection, a variety of opportunities to reflect and guidance in the form of mentors or workshops. Conversely, exam pressure and effortful periods reduced the likelihood of student reflection. Finally, students engaged in reflection to raise personal awareness, improve academic and personal performance, and change their beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviours.

Students’ reflections were triggered by challenging, adverse, or uncertain situations, including perceived academic or personal failures and encountering novel circumstances. These results are in line with those observed in previous studies within the clinical domain (Bagheri et al., 2019; Brown et al., 2013; R. B. Krueger et al., 2020; Marshall et al., 2021; Plant et al., 2017). Furthermore, students’ reflections were often prompted by challenging interpersonal interactions, such as meeting new peers or ending relationships. These findings agree with the conclusions drawn by Plant et al. (2017) and R. B. Krueger et al. (2020), who highlight how difficult interactions with patients in clinical settings can catalyse reflective practice. Furthermore, students identified negative emotional reactions to situations as a significant trigger for reflection, a finding consistent with the results of Bagheri et al. (2019) and Marshall et al. (2021), who discuss how emotions provide an opportunity to observe one’s thoughts and actions for adaptation to the situation. Thus, the study reveals that students were inclined to authentically reflect when they experienced discomfort and perceived challenges in various aspects of their lives.

However, an emerging study finding also point out that positive situations, such as academic achievement, mastering a skill or rewarding life events, can prompt university students to reflect on how they reached this outcome by considering the steps they took. A possible explanation for this might be that positive psychology exercises, such as practicing gratitude and savouring memories, are now available on internet sites (Schueller & Parks, 2014), providing extra resources for those interested in reflecting. This finding poses a valuable opportunity for course designers, as it allows them to move away from the idea that reflection is only triggered by challenges or deficits. Now, it seems relevant to invite students to look back on their lives to understand the root causes of success and to apply this knowledge to improve future performance, as Dixon et al. (2016) already suggest for reflective practice in the workplace.

Regarding the factors that facilitate reflection, this study argues that SDT can guide the creation of a conducive environment for reflection by addressing three essential psychological needs: relatedness, autonomy, and competence using the actions and activities recommended in existing research and literature. In this context, the findings of this study emphasise the importance of creating an interactive environment where students feel comfortable expressing themselves, reflecting, and receiving feedback. The findings are not surprising since they are in agreement with the literature (Brown et al., 2013; Plant et al., 2017; Marshall et al., 2021; Guo, 2022) and support the finding of C. K. J. Wang et al. (2019) who found that relatedness is the strongest contributor to autonomous motivation in (secondary school) students. In that respect, it becomes crucial to nurture students’ sense of relatedness to facilitate reflection. This can be achieved by promoting cooperation and dialogue among peers, as well as encouraging academic staff to adopt an interpersonally involved style that is friendly, caring, and receptive toward students as suggested by Sparks et al. (2017) in the context of high school teachers.

Furthermore, students stressed the importance of an autonomy-supporting environment, where they have the freedom to choose their reflective assignments and how they approach them. This request for autonomy is consistent with previous research (Brown et al., 2013; Marshall et al., 2021) and is in harmony with the concept of offering students a variety of reflective activities, from journaling to reflective dialogues, allowing them to follow the one that suits their interests and preferences. Giving students choices from a diverse toolkit has already been highlighted by research (de la Croix & Veen, 2018; Guo, 2022; Marshall et al., 2021; F. Wang et al., 2023), but it is of particular significance today because the student population is diverse, and universities need to accommodate this diversity of experiences, motivation, social class, family circumstances, and ability levels (Davis, 2003). In the same vein, the results indicate that these reflective activities and assignments should be planned during times when students possess sufficient cognitive and time resources to participate. This is crucial because competing demands and time constraints can hinder them from engaging in meaningful reflection, as already posed by Brown et al. (2013), Nguyen et al. (2014), and Plant et al. (2017).

Lastly, based on the perspective of students, developing competence in reflective thinking can be accomplished through clear instructions regarding reflective assignments, workshops, and the presence of a mentor or tutor who can provide feedback and ask thought-provoking questions. These findings support the ideas of Brown et al. (2013), Plant et al. (2017) and Marshall et al. (2021), who highlight guidance as a key variable for reflective practice in the clinical field. Moreover, these results strengthen the ones of Waring (2013) who indicates that in teacher education, mentor’s assessment and advice encourage mentees to undertake reflective analyses of their practices and contemplate alternative courses of action.

Students’ suggestions can be incorporated into the curriculum by including theoretical modules on reflection and providing situated feedback that stimulates and improves their reflective abilities.

Finally, student views indicated that reflection aids their personal awareness, their academic and personal development, and the ability to change beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviours. This perceived value of reflection might explain why a portion of the participants actively engaged in reflection by self-questioning or reviewing their behaviour and feelings. This finding corroborates the ideas of Butani et al. (2017) and Plant et al. (2017), who suggest that the likelihood of engaging in reflection increases when individuals value this thinking activity. Therefore, if students do not find value or purpose in a reflective activity, it is probable that they will follow the activity just for the sake of passing the evaluation but not actually reflecting, as de la Croix and Veen (2018) warn. Increasing the perceived value of reflection within the curriculum requires teachers and students to align their views on the reflective assignment purpose through open discussion and collaboration.

This study demonstrates that insights from clinical practice, teacher education and management settings can be applied to academic classroom settings, especially the conducive environment that enhances individuals’ reflective thinking. Furthermore, employing SDT as a framework for comprehending the facilitation of reflection in education, as proposed in this paper, offers valuable guidance for curriculum designers. It can assist in cultivating students’ internal motivation for reflection, reducing the likelihood of individuals engaging in reflective assignments solely for receiving a favourable evaluation. Nevertheless, the findings of this study also suggest that some elements from the reflective practice setting cannot be expected in university students who have had limited exposure to practical experiences. For instance, ethical challenges or demands for accountability may not trigger reflective thinking in their context, nor do they necessarily emphasise reflection as a vehicle for integrating theory and practice, fostering social transformation, or situating practice within context. Ultimately, this study provides evidence that positive events can also prompt student reflection, extending the understanding of triggers for reflection and highlighting a new path to explore in this field.

Limitations and future research

As with all studies, there are limitations. The sample size includes only students who were pursuing a study in the field of behavioral and social sciences. Additionally, the majority of them possessed European nationality. Therefore, this study is limited in its sample and might not apply to other contexts. Moreover, participants may not have been able to accurately recall their past moments of reflection and the specific triggers that prompted them. This reliance on retrospective memory might have introduced potential inaccuracies and biases into their self-reported data. Even with these limitations, the research sets the stage for further exploration of university students’ reflection in the context of fewer practical conditions. Future self-report studies could explore how the perceived intensity of triggers influences reflection using experience-sampling method. In addition, experimental studies could investigate strategies to align the purpose of reflection between course designers and students, and test the impact of positive psychology exercises, such as life narratives and active-constructive responding, in meaningful reflection.

Implications for practice

For practitioners, the recommendation derived from the empirical results is to consider the experiences outside the curriculum as useful triggers for reflection. Prompting students to consider their own personal experiences, including positive events, as a meaningful source for reflection can grant more options for those who are exclusively situated in an academic classroom environment. Moreover, the incorporation of experiences outside the curriculum can stimulate the use of reflection in daily life, giving students the opportunity to create a habit that can be applied in their future professional practice and support them in their identity development during young adulthood. Additionally, in order to facilitate meaningful reflections among university students, it is necessary to promote students’ sense of relatedness, foster their autonomy by letting them choose from different resources for reflection, and strengthen their reflective competence by offering guidance in times when they are not under pressure. Finally, it seems pertinent to capitalise on students’ proactive enquiry of reflection; students are not resistant to reflection, they value it and thus they practice it in their personal domain. Consequently, discussing the value of a reflective exercise might be a worthwhile start for meaningful reflections.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the students who participated in the study and to Jody Oostema for her assistance in coding and moderating some of the focus groups.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Funding

The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Notes on contributors

Joedith López-Cuello

Joedith López-Cuello is a PhD candidate and a communications advisor at the Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience (FPN) at Maastricht University. She received a bachelor’s degree in Psychology from Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, and a master’s degree in Psychology from Maastricht University. Her research interests include reflective thinking and reflective practice.

Sjir Uitdewilligen

Sjir Uitdewilligen is an Associate Professor at FPN. His research focuses on teamwork in dynamic contexts and factors that promote collective learning and adaptation.

Anke Sambeth

Anke Sambeth is an Associate Professor at FPN. She holds a degree in both Neuropsychology and Educational Sciences and performs research that links those two fields. Additionally, her interests include evidence-based educational innovations that improve quality of the FPN educational programmes.