Well-being among Arab teachers in Israel during the COVID-19 pandemic: a mixed-methods study

ABSTRACT

Studies on minority-majority relations traditionally focus on the hegemonic group’s influence on everyday experiences. In this investigation, we focused on how Arab teachers in Israel were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic by examining their well-being during that period. The study used a mixed-methods design comprising a cross-sectional survey (N = 299) and in-depth interviews (N = 24) among Arab teachers during the third lockdown in Israel. The quantitative results indicated that giving teachers more support at work boosted their emotional well-being. In the regression model, the following significant factors explained 20% of the variance in perceived emotional well-being: female gender, teaching seniority, digital literacy, job support, and resilience. The qualitative findings showed the importance of extended family, particularly during the pandemic. In addition, all participants reported that their religious faith helped them cope during the crisis. The research findings point to the unique need for resources to promote well-being among Arab teachers working under stress.

KEYWORDS:

• Coronavirus
• Arabs
• teachers
• resilience
• well-being
• job support

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on people working in various professions. In March 2020, the Israeli government adopted a strategic move to mitigate the effects of the pandemic by shifting the entire school system to an online distance learning format. This sudden shift affected the lives of approximately 2.3 million students and over two hundred thousand teachers in Israel (Shinan-Altman & Levkovich, 2020). During the pandemic, teachers faced complex challenges in transitioning to online lessons, including creating suitable materials and overcoming technical difficulties (Zadok Boneh et al., 2022). Additionally, many juggled shared home workspaces with family members also engaged in remote activities (Cohen & Abedallah, 2021). This situation significantly impacted their physical (43%) and mental (67%) health, highlighting the pandemic’s extensive effect on educators’ professional and personal lives (Minihan et al., 2022).

Teacher well-being refers to an individual’s capacity to cope with various situations and maintain a balance between their emotional state and their environmental fit (Cherkowski, 2018, Hascher & Waber, 2021). Recent scholarly discourse in teacher well-being adopts a positive psychology approach, emphasizing the proactive enhancement of well-being through positive leadership and relationship-building (De Stercke et al., 2015, Cherkowski, 2018). Previous research has extensively examined and delineated factors that contribute positively or negatively to teacher well-being, focusing on indicators such as burnout, job satisfaction, and health (Huang et al., 2019). Furthermore, consistent correlations have been established between these well-being indicators and various job-related characteristics, including workload, time stress, social support, and school climate, as well as individual characteristics such as teacher efficacy, resilience, and coping strategies (Hascher & Waber, 2021, Fox et al., 2020).

Teacher well-being plays a critical role in teachers’ lives. Research shows that low levels of teacher well-being are a threat to teacher health and that well-being is a major driver of teaching quality and student achievement (Sokal et al., 2020). A study conducted among Arab teachers during the COVID-19 crisis found that their main stressors were factors related to their professional role, whereas environmental factors that provided resources helped them cope with the crisis (Zadok Boneh et al., 2022).

Over the past several decades, extensive research has examined the role and personal experiences of minority teachers working in diverse multilingual classrooms (Awwad-Tabry et al., 2023; Lengyel & Rosen, 2015). These studies revealed discernible tension between minority teachers’ aspirations towards professionalism and their expectation to be able to leverage their multicultural competencies within the school environment (Rosen & Lengyel, 2023). Yet the European and North American context for this research significantly differs from the situation in Israel in that the Israeli educational system is predominantly segregated, particularly with respect to Jewish and Arab populations (Jayusi & Bekerman, 2023).

While numerous studies have examined teachers’ well-being during the Coronavirus pandemic, limited attention has been devoted to exploring this issue within the Arab community in Israel. It is essential to recognize that research conducted in Europe and North America differs significantly in context from that conducted in Israel, where the education system is largely segregated, particularly between Jewish and Arab populations (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020). Additionally, there exists a challenge related to the partial availability of digital infrastructure within the digital society, which has the potential to impact teachers’ work and well-being during the Coronavirus period. Consequently, the incorporation of digital literacy could provide valuable insights to augment the existing body of knowledge (Masry-Herzallah & Stavissky, 2021).

Typically, Arab teachers work primarily in Arab schools (Mesch & Talmud, 2011, Neumark et al., 2013). Despite the diversity within Arab society in Israel, its members constitute a minority among teachers (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020, Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). This study’s primary objective is to examine the personal well-being of Arab teachers during the emergency situation of the Coronavirus pandemic, employing both quantitative and qualitative research methods to provide a comprehensive understanding.

The Well-Being of Arab Teachers in Israel

The Arab population of Israel is an ethnic minority that constitutes 21% of the population (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020). Arab society comprises three main religious groups: Muslims (83%), Christians (9%) and Druze (8%) (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020). Despite recent and major changes in Arab society in Israel, it is still considered a collectivist and conservative society that preserves its cultural and religious norms (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). As a result of interactions with diverse cultures, the Arab minority in Israel is undergoing societal, educational, and socio-cultural transformations (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020, Edara et al., 2021).

The Israeli public education system is divided into an Arab system and a Jewish system. These two separate systems are marked by inequality in resources, government allocations, and outputs (Awwad-Tabry et al., 2023). The Arab minority operates as a unique culture within broader Israeli society, and this cultural context can have a significant impact on teachers and their work-related stress (Arar & Massry-Herzallah, 2016). For instance, Arab schools often echo the authoritarian and collectivist social structure of Arab society, where teachers occupy a lower rung on the school hierarchy and are expected to adopt a certain level of conformity and subservience to authority (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). This challenging environment has undermined teachers’ motivation, satisfaction, and performance, potentially resulting in fatigue, exhaustion, and a reduced sense of well-being (Arar & Massry-Herzallah, 2016).

Clear inequality exists between Jewish and Arab societies. For instance, hundreds of thousands of Arab families lack access to the technological resources necessary for online education (Mesch & Talmud, 2011, Neumark et al., 2013). The digital gap between Jewish and Arab societies has been extensively documented (Masry-Herzallah & Stavissky, 2021). This glaring disparity in external resources, including internet availability and online access, has been underscored by studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, highighting the pronounced gap between these two societies (Masry-Herzallah, 2022, Masry-Herzallah & Stavissky, 2021).

Additionally, previous research indicates a heightened prevalence of stress among Arab teachers in Israel, attributed to the disproportionate pressures and demands they face compared to their Jewish counterparts (Arar & Massry-Herzallah, 2016, Abu Nasra & Arar, 2020). These studies also reveal a significant incidence of alienation, frustration, burnout, and stress within this demographic (Arar & Massry-Herzallah, 2016, Berson et al., 2015).

The Current Study

This study is based upon the job demands-resources model (JD-R model) (Demerouti et al., 2001), which posits that employee well-being is affected by two types of job characteristics: job demands and job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). This model can serve as an effective lens for examining the dynamic relationships between job demands, resources, and well-being among Arab teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. A work overload for an extended period of time has the potential to deplete the energy teachers need to accomplish their tasks, thus contributing to their low sense of well-being. In contrast, high levels of resources may have positive implications for teachers’ well-being (Sokal et al., 2020).

The current study examined the job demands posed by digital literacy, which is defined as the knowledge, affective skills, and understanding individuals need to work properly, safely, and effectively in digital contexts (Hussein et al., 2021). Some teachers have been reluctant to acquire digital skills, especially those working in conventional teacher-centred classrooms. Other teachers have deemed digital literacy training to be laborious and time-consuming and have found professional programmes for developing digital competence to be challenging (Hussein et al., 2021, Li & Yu, 2022). A review of 21 research studies found that teachers’ professional roles became much more complicated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Online teaching forced teachers to carry out more tasks, and this burden led to a decline in satisfaction and well-being (Li & Yu, 2022).

The current study examined two types of resources: emotional resilience (an internal resource), characterized as the ability to maintain or return to a state of well-being and adapt constructively in the face of adverse circumstances (Kangas-Dick & O’Shaughnessy, 2020), and job support (an external resource), characterized as beneficial social interactions available in the workplace, originating from colleagues and supervisors (Awwad Tabry et al., 2023). These two indicators of teacher well-being have been shown to be salient predictors of teaching effectiveness and positive educational outcomes (Levkovich & Shinan-Altman, 2021a). Permatasari et al. showed that the internal resource of personal resilience moderates the negative effects of stress or mental distress, increases the individual’s ability to cope with life’s difficulties, and provides flexibility in adapting to the changing demands of stressful situations. Several studies conducted among teachers during the pandemic found a significant correlation between resilience and well-being (Edara et al., 2021; Levkovich & Kalimi, 2023).

In addition, job support was found to have a positive effect on job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and well-being (Mihalache & Mihalache, 2022). A study of about 400 teachers found that to be able to do their jobs, teachers need support and motivation from their colleagues and the school principal. In this study, 42% reported that support from co-workers helped them during the pandemic and another 29% reported being helped by the school principal (Baker et al., 2021).

Many studies have examined the effect of teachers’ psychological state during the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet little attention has been paid to perceived well-being among teachers in Arab society in Israel, especially during school closures and lockdowns. This gap in the research literature is significant in that emotional well-being affects teachers personally and has an impact on the quality of their teaching and their relationships with their students and the entire educational system (Baker et al., 2021). Hence, the qualitative part of this study sought to expand existing knowledge about the well-being of Arab school teachers in Israel during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as to shed light on the complexity of their work and provide information about their sources of support. The quantitative part of study aimed to assess how job demands (digital literacy), internal resources (emotional resilience), and external resources (job support) are associated with emotional well-being among Arab schoolteachers in Israel.

Specifically, the research tested the following hypotheses:

H1:

Levels of digital literacy, emotional resilience, and job support will exhibit a positive association with well-being among Arab teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

H2:

Resources (digital literacy, emotional resilience, and job support) will predict well-being among Arab teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic

Methods

Procedure

The study used an exploratory mixed-methods design to investigate well-being among Arab teachers. Both parts of the study – quantitative and qualitative – were conducted simultaneously. Mixed-methods research involves the collection, analysis, and integration of both quantitative and qualitative data within a single study (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This study employed a convergent parallel design, wherein qualitative and quantitative data were collected concurrently, analysed independently, and subsequently merged. The qualitative component, consisting of interviews, offered the advantage of allowing Arab teachers to respond more openly and in greater detail. This approach facilitated a more nuanced understanding of their individual needs, ideas, and contexts. For the quantitative aspect, an online survey was utilized, benefiting from the use of an established, standardized, and valid questionnaires (Levkovich & Shinan-Altman, 2021c). The integration process entailed synthesizing findings from both qualitative and quantitative data, enabling a comprehensive comparison and yielding insights beyond what could be derived from either methodology alone Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Participants were recruited as a convenience sample during March and April 2021, the period of Israel’s third lockdown. Only Arab teachers who taught during the 2020–2021 school year (the COVID-19 crisis in Israel) were included in the study. Teachers who taught less than one-third of a full-time job, substitute teachers, and teachers doing internships were excluded.

Ethical Considerations

The present study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Ministry of Education’s Chief Scientist (Approval no. XXX) and by the University Ethics Committee (Approval no. XXX). Prior to participation, participants gave their written consent. Participants were guaranteed complete confidentiality and assured that their identities would not be revealed (BERA, 2018). All participants were treated fairly, sensitively, and without prejudice.

Research Design

The quantitative study entailed an online survey conducted among 299 Arab teachers in Israel. To minimize personal contact during the lockdown, the questionnaires were administered online through the Qualtrics online platform. Arabic-speaking research assistants approached school principals, gave them a comprehensive explanation of the research and its objectives, and asked for their permission to distribute the questionnaire at their school. After this permission was obtained, the quantitative questionnaire was disseminated via the teachers’ email addresses and the school’s Facebook page. The questionnaire included a comprehensive explanation sheet, followed by a form where participants indicated they understood the research objectives and gave their consent to participate. They also had the option to indicate that they were not interested in participating in the research. The questionnaire also asked participants whether they would be interested in being interviewed. Of those who expressed interest, 24 teachers were randomly selected for the interviews.

The response rate was 84%among school principals and 79% among teachers. The primary reasons for refusal to participate included lack of time, workload during the pandemic, and a desire to gain some distance from issues related to the pandemic.

The qualitative study was conducted using phenomenological approach. This approach focuses on people’s lived experiences and the meanings they ascribe to these experiences (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This paradigm allows researchers to delve into the narratives and experiences of participants, as expressed in their own words, thereby facilitating a profound comprehension of the interviewees and yielding insights that elucidate the multifaceted nature of the phenomena under study. Participants were recruited through a convenience sample, contacted via advertisements on social media, inviting them to take part in the research study.

Sample – Quantitative Study

Participants in the quantitative study included 299 teachers—226 women (75.6%) and 73 men (24.4%), ranging in age from 23 to 65 (Mean = 40.58, SD = 8.18). Most of the participants were married (n = 263, 88%) and most had children under the age of 18 (n = 237, 79.8%). Most of the teachers (n = 171, 57.4%) had master’s degrees, worked at least two-thirds of a full-time job (n = 244, 84.7%), and had a mean of 16.28 years of teaching seniority (SD = 8.56, range 1–41).

Sample – Qualitative Study

Twenty-four teachers participated in the qualitative study. Most of them were women (n = 22, 91.6%). They ranged in age from 26 to 58 (Mean = 38.25, SD = 7.57) and had a mean of 12.15 years of teaching seniority (SD = 7.91, range 2–35). Fourteen of the interviewees held bachelor’s degrees (n = 14, 58.33%), nine had master’s degrees (n = 9, 37.5%), and one had a PhD (n = 1, 4.17%).

Data Collection – Quantitative Study

The measures used in the study are described in the following paragraphs. A composite index of the average of all items was created, with higher scores indicating higher levels of the variable.

Well-being was measured using the 14-item Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF; Lamers et al., 2011). Participants were asked to rate their feelings of well-being and distress during the last month (e.g. ‘How often in the last month have you felt happy?’) (Cronbach’s α = 0.91).

Digital literacy was measured by five items (Bawden, 2008). Participants were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each item (e.g. ‘I need a lot of time to learn how to use new technology’) (Cronbach’s α = 0.82).

Resilience was measured using the six-item Brief Resilience Scale (BRS; Smith et al., 2008), which was created to assess the ability to bounce back or recover from stress (e.g. ‘It does not take me long to recover from a stressful incident’) (Cronbach’s α = 0.80).

Job support was measured using the eight-item Job Content Questionnaire (Karasek, 1985). Participants were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each statement (e.g. ‘My supervisor is successful in getting people to work together’) (Cronbach’s α = 0.84).

Data Collection – Qualitative Study

The qualitative data were collected by in-depth semi-structured interviews. The objective was to collect details and data from the participants about the investigated topic in order to understand the experience and its meaning as they perceived it. The advantages of semi-structured interviews lie in their flexibility and their capacity to ask questions that are clearly and coherently organized around certain topics (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Each interview lasted one hour. The interviews were recorded and later transcribed. Due to the limitations imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, the interviews were held remotely via the Zoom platform. Participants were instructed to be alone in a quiet room, free from interruptions, for the interview. Sample questions included: ‘Tell me what it means to you to be a teacher during the COVID-19 pandemic’; ‘What new demands did you need to cope with at work?’; ‘In your opinion, how did those close to you (spouse, children) react to changes in your work during this period?’; ‘What personal and professional difficulties did you face during this period?’; ‘What advice would you give to other teachers working during this period?’

Data Analysis – Quantitative Study

The quantitative data were analysed using SPSS ver. 27. Descriptive statistics were calculated using means and SDs for continuous variables and frequencies and percentages for categorical variables. Pearson correlations for linear relationships were calculated to assess the associations between the variables. This sample size enabled us to calculate a multiple hierarchical regression for nine predictors, with low-medium effect size f2 = 0.10, α = 0.05, and power of 0.95 (G * Power version 3.1.9.7) (Faul et al., 2007). None of the research variables deviated from normal distribution: (skewness 0.60–0.83; SE = 0.14). Examination of multivariate normality using Mahalanobis distance showed that the variables did not deviate from multivariate normality.

Statistical Analyses – Qualitative Study

The matic coding was used to analyse the qualitative data. Two researchers read the interview transcripts line by line, looking for significant repetitive motifs and patterns. They then analysed the data collected in the interviews by marking sentences, descriptions, and important phrases that referred to the topic under investigation. The next step involved grouping the statements into themes, including quotes that captured the fundamental nature of what the participants experienced and perceived. Subsequently, the research process involved comparing and contrasting interview data to identify recurring themes. For example, during this stage, subcategories related to teachers’ well-being and family conflicts during the COVID-19 pandemic emerged. During this phase, subcategories of meaning were consolidated to create a conceptually coherent summary of the results. Following this, primary themes and their respective subcategories were identified from the interviews. In the subsequent stage, researchers identified and clustered related themes into secondary categories. In the final phase, the study’s central themes were pinpointed. The sub-categories that merged into the main themes are all related to the teachers’ well-being during the COVID-19 period. These core themes or primary categories, derived from the data, were then conceptually reorganized and reintegrated into the broader context, resulting in the creation of the final themes for the study (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Results

Quantitative Results

The means for well-being and digital literacy were above mid-range, while the means for resilience and job support were at mid-range. That is, participants reported moderate to high levels of well-being and digital literacy and moderate levels of resilience and job support. Pearson correlations were calculated to test Hypothesis 1. Well-being exhibited significant positive associations with digital literacy, resilience, and job support. That is, as levels of digital literacy, resilience, and job support rose, level of well-being rose as well (Table 1).

Table 1. Correlates, Means, SDs, and ranges of study variables (N = 299).

Variables		Well-being	Digital literacy	Resilience	Job support
1. Well-being	-
2. Digital literacy	.12*		-
3. Resilience	.26**		.32**	-
4. Job support	.24**		.16**	.19**	-
Mean	4.11		3.72	3.16	3.28
SD	.93		.67	.49	.58
Range	1–6		1–5	1–5	1–5

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; SD=Standard deviation.

Multiple regressions were calculated to test Hypothesis 2. The regression model was significant and explained 20% of the variance in sense of emotional well-being. The background variables explained close to 9% of the variance and the research variables explained an additional 11% of the variance. All these results were statistically significant. Of the variables, teaching seniority and emotional resilience were significant, such that as teaching seniority and emotional resilience increased, the teachers’ emotional well-being also increased (Table 2).

Table 2. Regression analysis for well-being among Arabs teachers (n = 299).

	B	SE	β	p	Adj.R^2
Step 1				<.001	.080
Gender-female	0.06	0.13	.03	.658
Teaching seniority	0.02	0.01	.18	.004
Step 2				<.001	.203
Gender-female	0.10	0.13	.05	.433
Teaching seniority	0.02	0.01	.16	.005
Digital literacy	0.03	0.09	.02	.753
Resilience	0.33	0.13	.17	.011
Job support	0.14	0.10	.09	.145

F(8, 256) = 9.41, p < .001.

The findings confirmed the hypothesis that levels of digital literacy, emotional resilience, and job support would be positively associated with well-being among Arab teachers. In addition, resources (digital literacy, emotional resilience, and job support) were found to predict well-being among the teachers.

Qualitative Results

Three major themes emerged from the research findings (Table 3):

Table 3. Summary of qualitative findings.

Theme	Categories
Theme 1: ‘I no longer recognize my job’: How teachers coped with online teaching	The shift to online distance teaching required adjusting lesson plans and investing resources and caused feelings of exhaustion and frustration The teachers reported difficulties in developing personal contact with students and fears about their emotional and academic situation Using the Zoom platform also created new opportunities for learning and creativity
Theme 2 – ‘Even when I’m home, I’m not really there’: Conflict between work and family during the COVID-19 pandemic	Work demands and requirements trickled into the home and family environment The teachers felt frustrated and guilty, mainly with respect to their own children Blurring the boundaries caused difficulties in managing home and work routines, leading to intolerance, fatigue, and tension The family unit was strengthened during this period, primarily among teachers with adolescent children
Theme 3 – ‘Between a warm hug and a cold shoulder’: Sources of support during the COVID-19 pandemic	Most teachers received support from professional teaching staff and described a sense of partnership, encouragement, and help Some described feeling isolated at work

Theme 1 - “I No Longer Recognize My Job”: How Teachers Coped with Online Teaching

According to the teachers, the shift to online teaching ‘rocked the boat’ so to speak. The transition required time and technological knowledge and elicited fears and uncertainty. Some of the teachers felt they needed to reinvent themselves, despite their many years of teaching experience. Most stated they were overwhelmed emotionally and exhausted by the frenzied preparations. Yet despite feeling overburdened, most admitted that with time they adjusted to the new situation.

I felt like a new teacher who needs to prepare every lesson in advance … . It took time to get used to Zoom. Also, to learn how to motivate the students, how to determine whether or not they understand, how to check attendance on Zoom … and whether they are concentrating on the lesson.

Distance learning also caused the teachers to worry about their students’ emotional state. They reported feeling concerned, helpless, and vulnerable regarding their personal contact with students. Moreover, the teachers reported that many students did not have computers or quiet study areas in their homes. Teachers in the Arab sector acknowledged being aware of the low socioeconomic status of some of their students but felt this should not have any impact on their teaching. Yet when they began teaching via Zoom, they suddenly saw the students in their homes. They became aware of the difficulties emerging when many siblings attempt to study at the same time and only one computer is available. This situation made the teachers feel helpless and sad, as illustrated by the English teacher’s statement:

The school guidance counsellor told us that conditions were difficult, and I am aware that many families in this village have low socioeconomic status and some of the parents are unemployed. But nothing prepared me for what I saw via Zoom … dilapidated and neglected rooms, poor internet connections, a boy who asked permission to leave in the middle of the lesson because his brother’s lesson was starting and they had only one computer at home.

Nevertheless, the teachers also reported that the online environment enabled them to cooperate with others. For example, unlike in the school setting, professional team meetings were relatively easy to arrange via Zoom. In addition, some of the teachers noted that while mothers were usually the ones involved in their children’s education and attended parents’ days, the Zoom meetings made it possible for both parents to attend these meetings. Some of the teachers described the online environment as an opportunity to reinvent themselves by using more current and up-to-date digital tools.

Theme 2 – “Even When I’m Home, I’m Not Really there”: Conflict Between Work and Family During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The teachers described how their work began to infiltrate their home and family environment, causing stress. Because they worked from home, there were no limits on work time, and they found themselves working incessantly and at unusual times to handle work crises. The teachers felt burnt out from working in a stress-filled environment and from conflicts with their spouses, who believed they were devoting too much time to work.

The first period was the most difficult. All I did was cry. The children kept interrupting: ‘I want to eat, I want to watch TV.’ Each of them wanted something. My kids are quite young … . My husband yells at me and at the kids … . After I finish with Zoom, I still have housework to do. It’s exhausting.

Teachers with young children described the heavy burden of needing to take care of their own children while teaching via Zoom. Filling these two roles simultaneously made them feel trapped and guilty. Before the pandemic, teachers got help from family members. But because they sought to safeguard the health of older family members during the pandemic, they had to deal with their multiple tasks without any help.

When I’m home, all my attention is devoted to work. That is simply awful. The children are home but you are not really available for them. … I feel really awful about this.

The structure of Arab society is often based on the hamula or extended family clan, whose members rely on one another for social and economic support. During previous periods of stress and crisis, the teachers felt they could count on help from the extended family – parents, siblings, in-laws – for childcare, help in cooking and more. During the coronavirus crisis, this help was not available due to the guidelines and restrictions on movement. Female teachers in Arab society found it particularly difficult to cope with their many roles in educating their children and taking care of the home. They saw their difficulties in fulfilling these roles as a personal failure.

In the past, when I was at work or studying my mother or my sisters would help me. My children were happy to go to them. They were accustomed to this. That’s how it is in the hamula—we help each other whenever necessary.

Some of the teachers, mainly those with adolescent children, reported that stronger family ties developed because they had a chance to eat meals together and spend more time with the family. They expressed their appreciation of this quality family time:

We had time together as a family, without any pressures. We did many things at home with the children. The teenagers enjoyed this. We cooked a lot and tried new recipes.

Theme 3 – “Between a Warm Hug and a Cold Shoulder”: Sources of Support During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Most of the teachers felt that support from their colleagues offered them stability, gave them a sense of security, and reduced their feelings of isolation. This support made things easier for them and provided legitimization for their feelings. The subject-area teachers valued the significant support they received from the subject-area coordinators and grade coordinators.

We were a very close team of teachers at the school and we helped one another … The educational counsellor was also available and provided us with emotional support.

In contrast, some of the teachers reported that the social isolation of working from home cut them off from the professional teams they ordinarily worked with. They described their disappointment with the lack of support and their sense of profound isolation. Clearly the lack of support during this period left them feeling exposed, helpless, and vulnerable.

I thought that during this period we would see professionalism and mutual support, but I was extremely disappointed. Everyone was for himself or herself, without helping anyone else, without coping together.

The teachers were extremely critical of the school principals’ remote and heavy-handed conduct. These principals usually belonged to a powerful hamula that dominated the politics of the local government authority. Most of these principals emphasized achievements and adopted a centralized style of work. Hence the teachers were frustrated by the administration, which they saw as insensitive to the new situation. They even began to lose faith in the administrators, who were supposed to be their leaders and source of support. They felt that they and their hard work were invisible. Moreover, they felt the administration was only making things harder for them rather than providing support.

I am disappointed in the principal. We had a very good relationship because he knows me very well, but now I feel he is totally cut off. He does not teach and therefore does not understand how it is to teach via Zoom … . I work with the most difficult students under terrible conditions and intolerable pressure, and no one is aware of my needs.

Some of the teachers reported that their spouses were their main source of support during the pandemic, providing both emotional and instrumental support and thus relieving their stress. Other teachers, in contrast, indicated that their conflicts with their spouses intensified or that new conflicts were generated by the situation. They were concerned about their marital relations and lack of proper support. They stated they expected to receive more help during such distressful times.

In my personal life, my relationship with my husband suffered the most. Our relationship is at a low point, almost non-existent, it cannot get any lower.

All the teachers, regardless of age, stated that what helped them the most during this difficult period was their religious faith. Because the crisis was temporary, they felt there was room for hope and that their prayers would help. The maths teacher stated:

When I’m in distress, I turn to God. I know he is always by my side to help me and my family, even at the most difficult moments.

These findings underscore that the shift to online teaching required time and technological knowledge and elicited fear and uncertainty. The teachers reported that their work began to infiltrate the home and family environment, causing quite a bit of stress. Female teachers in Arab society found it particularly difficult to cope with their many roles, which also included educating their children and taking care of the home. They saw their difficulties in fulfilling any of these roles as a personal failure. The teachers described their disappointment with the lack of support from the school principals (Appendix 1. Additional citations per theme).

Discussion

This study sought to identify the significant factors affecting the well-being of Arab teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic Israel. The study found that digital literacy, emotional resilience, and job support were positively associated with well-being among Arab teachers. The results of the current study testifying to changes in teachers’ sense of emotional well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic are in line with previous studies (Akour et al., 2020, AlQutob et al., 2020; Levkovich & Shinan-Altman, 2021b). Indeed, the sudden change forced all teachers to adapt instantaneously and had an immediate impact on their emotional well-being (Levkovich & Shinan-Altman, 2024). The findings of the current study show that work demands as well as teachers’ internal and external resources significantly affected their emotional well-being during this period (Zadok Boneh et al., 2022).

The qualitative research findings showed that distance teaching made these teachers aware of the low socioeconomic status of some of their students. Arabs in Israel experience various forms of socioeconomic discrimination and disadvantage (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). This study revealed that the socio-cultural norms and daily practices in traditional Israeli-Arab society that became apparent to the participants during distance teaching clashed with their own beliefs (Hussein et al., 2021, Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019).

Emotional resilience among Arab teachers was positively associated with well-being. Resilience during the pandemic has the potential to reduce anxiety and depression (Edara et al., 2021; Levkovich & Kalimi, 2023). Studies show that many people lived under stressful and troubling conditions during the pandemic, especially during the lockdowns (Edara et al., 2021; Levkovich & Kalimi, 2023). Both the quantitative and the qualitative results point to the importance of internal and external resources in coping with job demands during the COVID-19 crisis (Cohen & Abedallah, 2021). These findings are also in line with another study that demonstrated a higher level of job support and a better emotional state among Arab teachers (Akour et al., 2020, Mihalache & Mihalache, 2022). That study found that resources (emotional resilience and job support) predicted well-being among the teachers.

In addition, the qualitative findings enhanced our understanding of teachers’ emotional well-being in the tension between work and home. Other studies showed that during the pandemic, teachers were forced to maintain a balance between work and home, while dealing with childcare and spouses (Levkovich & Shinan-Altman, 2021c). Well-being among teachers was found to be related to their sociodemographic characteristics, work hours, and work – family balance during the COVID-19 pandemic (Li & Yu, 2022). The need to support both their own children and their students was an additional source of stress for teachers (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). This work-home conflict is particularly significant in Arab society. Despite recent changes and the shift from a traditional to a more modern society, patriarchal norms regarding gender roles are still deeply embedded in Arab society (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). In the current study, 80% of the participants were married women with young children, and around half had elderly parents.

The study also underscored the importance of the extended family and the hamula, particularly during the pandemic. The teachers were accustomed to rely on their families, but were unable to do so due to social distancing restrictions. Members of a hamula usually rely on one another for social and economic support (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020). Respect for and obedience to one’s elders are also strongly held values (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). During the COVID-19 pandemic, people were not able to seek help from their elders but rather had to provide their elders with help.

All the teachers participating in the qualitative study reported that their religious faith helped them cope with the crisis. Arab society in Israel is culturally diverse and heterogenous and is split internally along many dimensions, such as region, religion, family, tribe, community, and class (Al-Haj & Rosenfeld, 2020). Nevertheless, Arab society has remained quite religious: 79% of Arabs define themselves as religious, although their degree of religious observance varies (Hayik & Weiner-Levy, 2019). Research clearly demonstrates the positive effects of religion and spirituality on health and well-being (Edara et al., 2021; Levkovich & Kalimi, 2023; Levkovich et al., 2023).

Research Limitations

First, because this study was based on an online, non-probabilistic sample, caution must be taken in generalizing its results to all teachers in the Arab sector in Israel. Secondly, in response to the social distancing restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic, qualitative interviews were conducted via the zoom platform, while the quantitative study utilized online questionnaires. Hence, the response rate and the reasons for refusing to participate are not known. Third, the study used a crosswise design that described the situation at one time point only. Hence, no conclusions can be drawn regarding directionality or causality in the associations between the research variables. Fourth, additional variables that may have influenced the study’s results but were not examined include spiritual resilience, the nature of family relationships, among others. We recommend further exploration of these issues in subsequent studies focusing on Israeli Arab teachers at various time points.

Practical Implications

The findings of this study point to the need for developing designated programmes to help Arab teachers cope with emergencies, while enhancing their resources. We recommend strengthening the resilience provided by job support by reinforcing teachers’ sense of belonging to an organization. Religion, which was also found to help during stressful situations, should also be reinforced. Moreover, workshops to help teachers attain digital literacy should also highlight the emotional consequences of these changes for teachers’ well-being.

The work-home conflict was found to be a significant factor in explaining teachers’ emotional well-being during the pandemic. Hence, school principals are advised to consider the implications of this conflict and adjust their work demands accordingly. Characteristics of the extended family (hamula) should also be considered. While these characteristics can potentially help teachers, during stressful periods such as the pandemic they can also exert additional stress.

We recommend offering long-term support programmes for teachers, accompanied by assessment research. Implementing these recommendations may help improve emotional well-being among Arab teachers, particularly during a crisis such as a pandemic. It is also important to recognize that the success of online and frontal teaching is dependent upon achieving a balance between demands and available resources.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The present study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Ministry of Education’s Chief Scientist (Approval no. 11606) and by the Bar-Ilan University Ethics Committee (Approval no. 011202). The introductory page to our survey explicitly stated that by proceeding to the questionnaire participants indicated their consent to participate.

Availability of data and materials

The data sets used in the study can be provided by the corresponding author upon request.

Author’s contributions

Both authors recruited the participants and collected and analysed the data. IL wrote the paper. SSA revised the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgments

We thank all participants for their efforts.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/2005615X.2024.2338981

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by the Ministry of Education’s Chief Scientist [Approval no. 11606].

Notes on contributors

Inbar Levkovich

Prof. Inbar Levkovich, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Head of the Unit for Theses in the Faculty of Graduate Studies, at Oranim Academic College, Israel. Her main areas of research are Stress, coping and mental health.

Shiri Shinan-Altman

Dr. Shiri Shinan-Altman, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences, School of Social. My research work deals with social work in health care settings and focuses on the various aspects of the assessment of psychosocial adjustments of patients, their families, and professionals who work in the health care setting.