Plaster of Paris (POP) Installers’ Awareness of Occupational Hazards and Utilisation of Safety Measures in Ho Municipality, Ghana

Abstract

Construction workers are found to use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) infrequently, although workplace accidents are common and strongly associated with safety education. In Ho, Ghana, this study examines POP installers’ awareness of occupational hazards and the use of PPEs. The study’s motivation and contribution are in its analysis of the perceived obstacles and driving forces behind PPE use by POP installers in the construction industry, which is yet unknown in Ghana. Between May 15 and June 30, 2022, 149 POP installers in Ho Municipality filled out a crosssectional questionnaire using a purposive sampling method, and the data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) v.20. The outcome variables were determined using logistic regression with a 0.05 p value, the relative importance index (RII), and correlation analysis. There is a lack of awareness of knowledge, PPE use, and workplace safety among the participants. Once again, respondents cited discomfort as a reason for not wearing PPE during POP installation. Furthermore, knowledge of occupational hazards among POP workers negatively predicts PPE usage (B = 0.207, p < 0.05). The study’s findings provide critical information for contractors’ associations to collaborate with relevant health and safety professionals to regularly organise safety awareness training for members to increase worker knowledge and reduce risk-taking behaviour. This study is unique because it is the first to access and provides an in-depth analysis of the purported barriers and driving motivations for PPE compliance and non-compliance from the perspective of an under-researched group of construction workers in Ghana.

Keywords:

• Plaster of Paris
• occupational hazards
• awareness
• safety
• PPE
• Ho Municipality

1. Introduction

Awareness of work-related occupational hazards enables one to work successfully to achieve the goals of the company (Chao & Henshaw, 2002). Also, being aware of and religiously using the needed Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for your work ensures that, you are protected from hazards and further leads to the creation of a safe climate for optimum productivity (Ulang et al., 2014). Safe work at the workplace is necessary for increased production and productivity, so promoting and protecting safe work is important for the success of an organisation (Upadhyaya, 2002). According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), construction sites worldwide report at least 60,000 fatal incidents each year (ILO, 2003). With a high rate of deaths and long-term injuries, the construction sector in Ghana is one of the most dangerous in terms of worker safety (Boakye et al., 2022; Osei-Asibey, Ayarkwa, Acheampong, Adinyira, Amoah et al., 2021a, 2021b). However, industrial construction jobs may ultimately produce hazardous working situations and working conditions based on their processes, materials, technology and products, and these hazardous conditions pose a grave danger to both the workers on the site and ultimately the entire vicinity and or community (Beyene Gebrezgiabher et al., 2019). In fact, 56% of the occupational injuries and accidents in the construction industry that were registered in 2000 ended in fatalities (Boakye et al., 2022; Osei-Asibey, Ayarkwa, Acheampong, Adinyira, Amoah et al., 2021a). According to the 2015 Labour Force Survey, the construction industry has the third highest frequency of injuries per million hours among the twenty-one major industrial groups (Boakye et al., 2022; Tanko & Anigbogu, 2012). Statistics on workplace injuries and fatalities in Ghana raise serious concerns about how committed workers and management are to implementing safety measures in their daily activities, the extent to which workers are educated to follow safety procedures, and the frequency with which safety procedures are implemented (Atombo et al., 2017). Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) in Ghana’s construction industry has received attention due to these statistics on occupational injuries and their consequences on productivity and infrastructure development (Boakye et al., 2022). To safeguard workers from these hazards, it is unarguable that environmental management techniques to remove or diminish these detrimental variables and improve workplace quality through an engineering approach are critical solutions (Sawada et al., 2017).

Plaster of Paris (POP) has been a well-known building material for many centuries and has been used by the Egyptians and Romans for plastering walls (Szostakowski et al., 2017). Plaster of Paris is composed of calcium sulphate and water. It is made by partially dehydrating gypsum by heating it to 120 °C. When mixed with water, it emits heat and hardens to a porous mass in 5 to 15 minutes (Szostakowski et al., 2017). Plaster of Paris can be harmful because it has impurities like silica and asbestos, which can damage the lungs and cause other health problems (Helmenstine, 2019). It does not shrink or crack when dry, which makes it an excellent material for casting moulds, and it’s mostly used for precasting and to hold plasterwork in ceilings and cornices (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica., 2022). It is also used as a protective or decorative coating on walls and ceilings. Due to how fast POP sets, some sculptors work with it, making an original idea come out quickly (Akinlabi, 2016). Another name for POP is calcined gypsum or plaster, most commonly known as “gypsum” in industry. POP is mostly used as a construction material, surgical plaster, and ceramic moulds (Keane, 1916). The researchers in (Sharma & Prabu, 2013) assert that the use of POP has evolved over the years. POP started as a method used in managing fractures in both adults and children, the management of neuropathic joints and diabetic ulcers, the correction of fixed flexion of the knee, for spinal surgery as a bone graft substitute, and the filling up of bone defects in the medical sciences.

There is currently a known lack of information on the estimated workforce that occasionally executes POP installation as part of their job obligations around the world. Nonindustrial POP installation is one of the occupations that contributes to these occupational injuries, particularly in underdeveloped nations like Ghana. In the context of industry, including POP employees, the organisation of occupational health and safety services is not yet robust enough to address the expanding demands for workers’ health (Beyene Gebrezgiabher et al., 2019). Health and safety-related issues have always existed in developing nations, although there are gaps in research, capacity, policy and regulation, training, organisational structure, monitoring, and evaluation, as well as databases for action (Kumie et al., 2016).

Workers who install POP are one of the most underappreciated categories of employees who experience issues at work. Research on the trade and its health-related issues are yet to begin within the country. This makes it important to know how many POP workers use PPE and know about occupational risks regarding POP installation. This will help when designing intervention plans for this important working group that are meant to promote and keep up good health and safety standards. To address the gap in knowledge on safety for POP installers in Ghana, the goal of the study was to examine POP installers’ awareness of occupational hazards and the use of PPEs in the Ho Municipality of Ghana.

This paper is one of the first to have accessed the views of an under-researched group of construction workers (POP installers). The study’s value is in its analysis of the alleged impediments and driving forces for compliance and non-compliance with PPE use, notably POP installers, which have not yet been established in Ghana. This study, therefore, enriches the current literature on occupational hazards and the use of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) by workers on the construction site by providing an additional dimension to the understanding of the views of POP installers and their safety perceptions in the Ho Municipality of the Volta Region of Ghana.

2. Related Works

Many studies have been conducted to assess the awareness of workers of occupational hazards and the use of PPE during work (Appiah, 2019). To reduce the likelihood of exposure to occupational risks and accidents in the construction sector, PPE is essential for personal safety at the worker level (Kumie et al., 2016; Appiah, 2019).

According to (Boakye et al., 2022), age groups, years of experience, and kind of job were shown to be the key mediating variables between adherence and nonadherence to PPE usage by construction workers. This study suggests that safety training should be given to employees if good safety management and performance with PPE are to be achieved. The authors in (Chukwu et al., 2019) investigated the occupational hazards and use of PPE among small-scale welders in Owerri North LGA, Imo State, Nigeria, and found that the welders in the study worked under dangerous conditions that exposed them to hazards, and many were not aware of the hazards associated with welding. However, most of them were aware of PPE but did not use it.

Rafindadi discovered in 2022 that employment status, on-site safety supervision, workers with safety training, and the worker’s perception of the risk of a hazardous situation all significantly predict the level of use of PPEs (Darda’u Rafindadi et al., 2022). The use of PPEs was found to be low among construction workers (Sehsah et al., 2020), although occupational accidents are common and are significantly related to safety training. The reasons adduced for the non-use of the PPEs include a lack of knowledge on how to use them and the poor fit of some of the PPEs.

When the authors (Alemu et al., 2020) examined the use of personal protective equipment and associated factors among building construction workers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, they discovered that PPE use was low among the construction workers studied. The main reasons given include the unavailability of the materials and the absence of an orientation programme on using the PPEs.

According to Raymond et al. (Kemei Raymond & Kaluli, 2017), employees in Kenya’s construction sector may have avoided hand, head, and leg injuries if they had the appropriate PPE, whereas the noble authors (Fatonade & Allotey, 2016) contend that the adoption of PPE might have prevented several workplace accidents in the Ghanaian construction sector.

The authors (Ammad et al., 2020) also reviewed personal protective equipment in construction and accidents involved in construction infrastructure projects from 2004 to 2019. The primary goal of this paper was to assess the impact of accident frequency and consequences in infrastructure projects as well as to determine whether personal protective equipment (PPE) is being used properly following health and safety (HSE) standards by extracting critical factors from various case studies. According to the findings, more than 2 million people worldwide are considered disabled as a result of work-related injuries each year. Furthermore, it was discovered that 25% or more of accidents were caused by sudden injuries to the head, eyes, arms, and legs. According to the study, the most serious issues in infrastructure projects were permanent disabilities, non-permanent disabilities, and sudden deaths.

The goal of (Yankson et al., 2021) was to compare the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by employees of locally and internationally owned road construction companies in Ghana during road construction activities. 389 road construction workers who were on the jobsite were the subject of an institution-based cross-sectional survey. Hard hats, goggles, shoes, nose masks, hearing protection, gloves, and reflective vests and apparel were among the PPE that caught our attention. A PPE sign posted on the property was also examined. Workers in foreign-owned companies were found to use PPE more frequently than those in locally-owned businesses. No site had any signage encouraging the use of PPE.

The noble authors (Nalugya et al., 2022) assessed the level of knowledge, attitude, and practises (KAP) related to PPE use among welders in small-scale workshops in Nansana Municipality, Wakiso district, Uganda. The results revealed that about 61.4% of the respondents had a high level of knowledge, 68.7% had a negative attitude, and only 37.1% exhibited good PPE-related practices. The welders had high PPE knowledge, but most had a negative attitude and poor PPE practises. The authors suggested that the welders need to be made aware of the potential dangers to their health that can result from not PPE.

The knowledge and safety practise of occupational hazards among flower farm workers in Ethiopia were explored in (Geleta et al., 2021). This study found low occupational hazard knowledge and practise. Education and employment duration influenced the knowledge of occupational hazards. Furthermore, the use of PPE and the level of knowledge had a significant impact on safety practise. As a result, employers were to ensure that workplace health and safety programmes take into account workers’ level of education and work experience.

The authors (Prakash & Yogeswari, 2022) investigated a structural equation modelling (SEM) approach to construction noise-related perception and worker behaviour. This study aims to examine how Indian construction workers react to noise and how they perceive it. In the questionnaire survey, 520 responses were collected from white- and blue-collar workers. Structural equation modelling also supported the association between noise sensitivity, participation in preventive measures, and awareness perception. According to the study’s findings, workers’ behaviour can be influenced by their level of awareness. The implications of the findings contribute to a better theoretical understanding of how construction workers engage in preventive measures and will aid in the development of safety policies and training programmes to increase worker knowledge and reduce risky behaviour.

Finally, the researchers (Galiakbarova et al., 2022) investigated healthcare efficiency in the context of medical and pharmaceutical staff regulation. This article also demonstrated the impact of socio-economic labour protection for healthcare professionals by analysing the relationship between their enactment in some OECD and EAEU nations and the effectiveness of healthcare systems. The list of states for comparative legal analysis was determined using the outcomes of international healthcare system evaluation rankings. In addition, empirical methods such as meetings, questionnaire surveys, and interviews with medical and pharmaceutical workers in Kazakhstan were employed in 2021. According to the research findings, states with specialised labour regulations for medical and pharmaceutical personnel maintain leading positions in international healthcare evaluation rankings. On the other hand, based on the example of EAEU nations with an insufficient level of specialisation in labour regulation for these categories of workers, several states rank poorly in comparable international rankings.

Incidentally, researchers did not produce any research work addressing the occupational hazards and use of personal protective equipment among POP installers. However, due to its growing popularity as a result of infrastructural demand from the expanding middle-class workforce on the continent of Africa as a whole, such information is vital in understanding the extent of awareness, the use of PPE, and knowledge about occupational hazards associated with POP installation. This highlights the study gap in recognising the relevance of individual POP workers taking personal safety and health precautions and will be useful when designing intervention strategies targeted at promoting and upholding good health and safety standards in this important working group. It is against this background that the study sought to assess occupational hazards and the use of PPE among POP installers in the Ho Municipality of the Volta Region of Ghana.

3. Methods and Materials

3.1 Study Settings

The study was conducted in Ho, the capital city of the Volta Region in Ghana, from May to June 2022, to assess the awareness of occupational hazards and the utilisation of safety measures among Plaster of Paris installers. Ho Municipality, as shown in Figure 1, is the administrative capital and commercial centre of the Volta Region of Ghana and is located between latitudes 6° 20’ N and 60° 55’ N and longitudes 0° 12’ E and 0° 53’ E, with a total area of 11.65 km² (Dzah et al., 2022). The total population of Ho Municipality is 180,420 people, as projected by the 2020 population and housing census (Ghana Statistical Service, 2021).

Figure 1. Map of Ho Municipal (Ministry of Finanace-Ghana, 2020).

3.2 Sample Size Analysis

The Chairman of the Ghanaian Artisans Association and the Volta Regional Branch of the Association of Building and Civil Engineering Contractors provided the target population figure of 245 registered artisans. Equation 1(1) $\mathrm{n}=\frac{\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{Z}}^2\mathrm{pq}}{\left({\mathrm{E}}^2\left(\mathrm{N}-1\right)+{\mathrm{Z}}^2\mathrm{pq}\right)},$(1) demonstrates how the sample size for small populations was determined using the normal approximation to the hypergeometric distribution formula under the following presumptions (Dzah et al., 2022):

(1) $\mathrm{n}=\frac{\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{Z}}^2\mathrm{pq}}{\left({\mathrm{E}}^2\left(\mathrm{N}-1\right)+{\mathrm{Z}}^2\mathrm{pq}\right)},$(1)

The minimum sample size (n) was 150 after calculation due to the following factors:

N = (population size consisting of selected artisans = 245), pq = (since there was no prior study at the time of this investigation, the projected percentage of success and failure was taken to be 50%), E = (margin of error = 5%), and Z = (standard score value for 95% confidence level = 1.96).

3.3 Research Instrument Design

The major instrument for gathering data in this study was a questionnaire. A set of questions was created for respondents to check off the responses that applied to them. The questionnaire was divided into five sections and was mostly closed-ended. The first section (section A) of the questionnaire asked for basic biographical data such as gender, age, marital status, level of education, and work experience. The second part (section B) looked at knowledge of occupational hazards. The third part (section C) also looked at the awareness of the respondents regarding work-related hazards using a five-point Likert scale to gauge awareness (5 = fully aware; 4 = aware; 3 = neutral; 2 = not aware; and 1 = not fully aware). The fourth part (section D) examined the respondents’ use of personal protective equipment (PPE) using a five-point Likert scale to gauge awareness (5 = always; 4 = frequently; 3 = sometimes; 2 = seldom; and 1 = never). The last part (section E) analysed the respondents’ reasons for not wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) using a five-point Likert scale to gauge responses (5 = strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; and 1 = strongly disagree).

3.4 Data Collection Procedure

The data for the survey was collected using a pretested and standardised self-administered questionnaire adapted from the authors’ (Chukwu et al., 2019) work and contextualised for this topic. A total of 150 questionnaires were administered to POP installers through the purposive sampling technique in the Ho Municipality to assess their awareness of occupational hazards and the use of safety measures during POP installation. The participants were educated on the study’s objective and significance. The data were acquired with the subjects’ full knowledge and agreement, and confidentiality was protected by withholding their names and other forms of personal identification or privacy. Respondents filled out the questionnaires, with researchers and their trained assistants assisting those who encountered difficulty. Out of the 150 questionnaires administered, 149, representing 99%, were retrieved and used for the data analysis.

3.5 Data Analysis

The data was processed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The mean, standard deviation, and proportion of the variables were analysed, and logistic regression analysis with a 0.05 p-value was used to measure how the outcome variables (knowledge and safe practise of workers) depend on the covariate variables (PPEs usage and sociodemographic variables). The ranking factor was also calculated based on the Relative Importance Index (RII) value.

4. Results

The analysis of the data gathered and the findings are presented in this section.

4.1 Validity and Reliability

4.1.1 Validity Test (KMO and Bartlett’s Test and Factor Loadings/CFA)

The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s Sphericity of sampling adequacy tests were used to evaluate the validity of a set of 30 instruments. Component analysis was supported by Bartlett’s test of Sphericity, which measures the degree of correlation between variables. We counted two studies ($x^2$ ² = 58,406) to determine the significance of the data gathered. KMO’s sampling adequacy score indicated that the sample size was enough for factor structure analysis. An average value between 0.5 and 0.6 is acceptable for sample sizes between 100 and 200 (Shrestha, 2021). For each construct, the KMO values obtained using these methods were greater than 0.6 (Çağirtekin & Aküzüm, 2020). The overall KMO statistics is equal to 0.624 > 0.6, which indicates that sampling is adequate and the factor analysis is appropriate for the data.

After performing the processes, it was found that the data were significant enough to move on to factor analysis via Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity to calculate each item’s communalities. Between 0.279 and 0.891 communalities were found for each of the variables. The Sphericity test by Bartlett is highly significant at p < 0.001, indicating that the correlation matrix contains significant correlations among at least some of the variables (Shrestha, 2021). Bartlett’s Test results and communality characteristics are provided in Table 1 of this report. The test value in this case is 225.74, and the associated degree of significance is less than 0.0001. As a result, the hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix was rejected.

Table 1. Validity test results

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.		0.624
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	225.74
	Df	10
	Sig.	0.00

Source: Field Data, 2022

4.1.2 Reliability Test (Cronbach Alpha test)

As part of the study’s preliminary analysis, a reliability test was conducted to see if all of the items included in the research instrument could consistently yield a favourable result for the study. The Cronbach Alpha statistical technique was used to analyse the item’s internal consistency. Cronbach alpha values greater than or equal to 0.7 were found for almost all variables and variables’ dimensions in Table 2 below. The values ranging from 0.648 to 0.840 were the Cronbach alpha values for each study. The test items have a high degree of correlation when the alpha level is higher than 0.7 (Shrestha, 2021).

Table 2. Reliability test results

Construct	Number of items	Cronbach Alpha
Knowledge of occupational hazards	4	0.723
Awareness of work-related hazard	6	0.840
Usage of PPE	6	0.648
Safety Practises	4	0.778

Source: Field Data, 2022

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

To learn more about the people who participated in the survey, researchers requested demographic data from them. The study considered factors such as age, gender, marital status, work experience and academic achievement. The results are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Demographic characteristics of respondents

Demographic Characteristic	Category	Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	147	98.7
	Female	2	1.3
	Total	149	100.0
Age	Under 25 years	19	12.8
	26–34 years	92	61.7
	35–44 years	35	23.5
	45–54 years	3	2.0
	Total	149	100.0
Marital Status	Single	100	67.1
	Married	49	32.9
	Total	149	100.0
Educational Level	Primary	35	23.5
	JHS	16	10.7
	SHS	91	61.1
	Tertiary	7	4.7
	Total	149	100.0
Working Experience	Less than 5 yrs	64	43.0
	6–10 yrs	67	45.0
	11–15 yrs	18	12.1
	Total	149	100.0

Source: Field Data, 2022

The findings from Table 3 demonstrate that 98.7% of the respondents were males and 1.3% of the respondents were females. This suggests that men dominate the POP installers in the Ho Municipality. The findings also show that 12.8% of the respondents were under 25 years old, 61.7% of the respondents were between the ages of 26 and 34 years, 23.5% of the respondents were between the ages of 34 and 44 years, and 2% of the respondents were between the ages of 45 and 54 years. This finding suggests that the majority of the respondents working as POP installers in the Ho Municipality of the Volta Region of Ghana were below 35 years old. This also depicts that the POP installers are quite young.

Concerning the marital status of the respondents, the findings of the study show that 67.1% of the respondents, representing the majority, were single and 32.9% were married. The results from Table 3 also demonstrate that 23.5% of the respondents were primary school leavers, 10.7% of the respondents were junior high school leavers, 61.1% of the respondents were senior high school leavers, and 4.7% of the respondents were tertiary school graduates. This finding suggests that the majority of the POP installers in Ho Municipality had at least a high school education.

With regards to the work experience of the respondents, the results depict that 43% of the respondents had been a POP installer for less than 5 years, 45% of the respondents had been a POP installer for 6–10 years, and 12.1% of the respondents had been a POP installer for 11–15 years. This result shows that most of the POP installers in Ho Municipality had at least 10 years of working experience.

4.3 Descriptive Statistics of Distribution of Responses

Table 4 shows the descriptive statistics for the test variables used to validate the hypothesis on the level of knowledge and awareness of occupational and work-related hazards, the use of PPE, and the safety practises of POP installation.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics on the various variables

Critical region value = 3.50
Test Variables	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
1. Knowledge of occupational hazards	149	1.22	0.28
2. Awareness of work-related hazard	149	3.99	0.78
3. Usage of PPE	149	1.09	0.17
4. Safety Practises	149	3.39	0.87

Source: Field Data, 2022

On a five-point Likert scale, the mean values in the sub-sections below are interpreted according to how the items were measured with respect to the critical region value of 3.0 based on the set hypothesis.

Using the Likert scale analysis as a statistical tool, let;

H₀ = Awareness or knowledge or usage of test variable is low

H₁ = Awareness or knowledge or usage of test variable is high

$\mathit{Critical}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{region}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{value}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}=\frac{5+4+3+2+1}{5}=3.0$;

Accept the Null Hypothesis if the Mean Response is Less Than 3.0 and Reject if it is Greater Than 3.0

According to Table 4, the result for Test 1: knowledge of occupational hazards (1.22 ± 0.28) was significantly lower than the test’s critical region value, indicating that the hypothesis can be accepted and conclude that the majority of the survey respondents do not know the occupational hazards of POP installation. On the other hand, the results for Test 2: awareness of work-related hazards (3.99 ± 0.78) was significantly high than the critical region value, indicating that the hypothesis can be rejected and conclude that the majority of the survey respondents claimed to be aware of the work-related hazards associated with POP installation. Again, the result for Test 3: PPE usage (1.09 ± 0.17) was far below the test’s critical region value, indicating that the hypothesis can be accepted and conclude that the majority of the survey respondents never used PPEs during POP installation. Furthermore, the final result for POP installation safety practises (3.39 ± 0.87) was high above the critical value, indicating that the hypothesis can be rejected and conclude that the majority of the survey respondents slightly agreed that POP installation safety practises were followed.

4.4 Status of PPE Usage by Respondents

The use of PPEs by respondents was quite low, as found in Table 4, Table 5 on the other hand, breaks down the ranking of the most and least used PPE.

Table 5. Status of PPE usage by respondents

PPEs usage	RII	RNK
Hand glove	0.228	1
Apron (overall)	0.226	2
Face mask	0.221	3
Eye goggle	0.220	4
Helmets	0.211	5
Boots (safety shoes)	0.207	6

Source: Field Data, 2022

From Table 5, it can be observed that the most commonly used PPE was hand gloves. This statement was ranked 1^st in the RII calculated values (RII = 0.228), followed by overalls and face masks, which rank in the 2^nd and 3^rd place based on the RII calculated values (RII = 0.226) and (RII = 0.221). The least-used PPE was safety boots (RII = 0.207).

4.5 Reasons for Not Using PPEs

The study also looked at the reasons respondents gave for their refusal to use the PPEs, and Table 6 provides a breakdown of the findings using the relative importance index (RII).

Table 6. Reasons for not using PPEs

Reasons for not using PPEs	RII	RNK
I can’t use my hand to mix well when I am wearing the gloves	0.83	1
The gloves reduce my flexibility to work efficiently	0.82	2
Helmets are for construction persons, not POP people	0.81	3
I can’t breathe well when I wear the face mask	0.80	4
Use of overall reduces the flexibility of working and gets dirty quickly.	0.79	5
Safety boots are too heavy to use to climb heights	0.77	6
I can’t see well when I wear the goggles	0.73	7

Source: Field Data, 2022

Leading the list of reasons was “I can’t use my hand to mix well when I am wearing the gloves” (RII = 0.83). Secondly, the respondents felt that the gloves reduced their flexibility in working (RII = 0.82), which is why they don’t use them, and thirdly, helmets are supposed to be for construction workers (RII = 0.81), not POP installers. Concerning the use of face masks, respondents stated that they couldn’t breathe well while wearing the masks while working, so they rarely used them. This was ranked fourth (RII = 0.80). The findings indicate that POP installers in Ho Municipality are uneasy when using PPEs.

4.6 Correlation Analysis

The Pearson product-moment correlation index was used to determine whether or not there was a correlation between the two variables. Table 7 summarises the investigation’s findings.

Table 7. Correlation analysis

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Gender	1
2. Age	-.027	1
3. Marital Status	.042	.281**	1
4. Level of Education	.069	.157	.428**	1
5. Work Experience	-.033	.441**	.299**	.216**	1
6. Knowledge	.063	.069	.171*	-.191*	-.134	1
7. Awareness	.076	.013	.104	.057	-.158	.072	1
8. PPE Usage	-.007	.046	-.063	.018	.095	-.127	-.213**	1
9. Safety	.048	.035	.059	.205*	.060*	.042*	.143*	.066*	1

Source: Field Data, 2022

**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

According to the positive correlation index value calculated in this study, there is a positive linear association between knowledge of workplace dangers and safety behaviours (0.042). The results were statistically significant because the p-value (0.000) was below the alpha threshold of 0.05.

The results also show that there is a positive linear association between awareness of workplace dangers and safety behaviours, according to the positive correlation index value calculated in this study (0.143). The results were statistically significant because the p-value (0.000) was below the alpha threshold of 0.05.

The results further show that there is a positive linear association between PPE usage and safety behaviours, according to the positive correlation index value calculated in this study (0.066). The results were statistically significant because the p-value (0.000) was below the alpha threshold of 0.05.

4.7 Regression Analysis

The analysis of the relationship between independent and dependent variables is known as regression analysis. There are three critical aspects of regression analysis that this paper focuses on. These are the summary, ANOVA, and coefficient tables for the model under investigation. Each table has been discussed in connection to the model. Using the model summary table, you can see how well the regression line accounts for variation in the dependent variable. The correlation (R) between the dependent variable and the independent variables in the model is shown in the following table. It also demonstrates the extent to which the model has been able to account for the observed variation (R squared).

4.7.1 Relationship Between the Knowledge of Occupational Hazards of Workers and PPEs Usage

In the linear regression analysis, the independent variable accounted for 1.6% of the variance in explaining their effect on PPE usage (F = 2.416, p < 0.05). Observation from Table 8 shows that knowledge of occupational hazards of workers negatively predicts PPE usage by the POP workers (B = -0.207, p < 0.05). This finding suggests that the fact that POP installers knew nothing about occupational hazards does not guarantee that they would use PPE for their work.

Table 8. PPE usage as a predictor of knowledge of occupational hazards

	Model 1
	B	SE B	β	t
(Constant)	1.448*	0.147		9.826
Usage of PPE	-0.207*	0.133	-0.127	-1.554
R^2		0.016*
F		2.416*

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001

4.7.2 Relationship Between Safety Practises of Workers and PPEs Usage

The independent variable according to the linear regression analysis accounted for 0.4% of the variance in explaining their effect on PPEs usage (F = 0.641, p < 0.05). Observation from Table 9 shows that PPEs usage by workers positively predicts safety practises (B = 0.329, p < 0.05). This finding suggests that there was a statistically significant association between PPE usage and safety practises.

Table 9. Simple linear regression with PPE usage as a predictor of safety practises

	Model 1
	B	SE B	β	t
(Constant)	3.031*	0.455		6.666
Usage of PPE	0.329*	0.411	0.066	0.801
R^2		0.004*
F		0.641*

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001

4.7.3 Socio-demographic Factors Associated with the Level of Knowledge of Occupational Hazards

The independent variable accounted for 15.8% of the variance in explaining their effect on occupational hazards (F = 5.349, p < 0.05), according to the linear regression analysis. Observations from Table 10 show that there was a statistically significant association between the knowledge of occupational hazards and socio-demographic characteristics; gender (B = 0.163, p < 0.05), age (B = 0.053, p < 0.05), marital status (B = 0.200, p < 0.05) and level of education (B = 0.097, p < 0.05) of POP installers.

Table 10. Factors associated with the level of knowledge of occupational hazards

	Model 1
	B	SE B	β	t
(Constant)	1.071*	0.212		5.040
Gender	0.163*	0.190	0.066	0.861
Age	0.053*	0.038	0.122	1.401
Marital Status	0.200*	0.053	0.332	3.748
Level Of Education	0.097*	0.027	-0.309	-3.614
Work Experience	-0.091*	0.037	-0.218	-2.481
R^2		0.158*
F		5.349*

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001

Further analysis revealed that the work experience (B = -0.091, p < 0.05) of POP installers negatively predicted their knowledge of occupational hazards. These predictions show that education and work experience have no significant impact on the level of knowledge about occupational hazards among POP installers in Ho Municipality.

5. Discussion

An assessment of the awareness of occupational hazards and utilisation of safety measures by Plaster of Paris (POP) installers was carried out in the Ho municipality. Although many studies have been conducted to examine worker awareness of occupational hazards and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) at work (Appiah, 2019; Chukwu et al., 2019; Darda’u Rafindadi et al., 2022), this paper is one of the first to access the perspectives of an under-researched group of construction workers (POP installers) in Ghana. This study, therefore, enriches the current literature on occupational hazards and the use of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) by workers on the construction site by providing an additional dimension to the understanding of the views of POP installers and their safety perceptions.

Comparable to past research on Ghanaian construction workers, the demographics of the building construction employees in this study were similar (Boakye et al., 2022; Kemei Raymond & Kaluli, 2017). According to previous Ghanaian research, participants frequently had access to safety helmets, safety boots or shoes, goggles, hand gloves and safety vests or aprons (Fordjour, 2015).

With regard to the results obtained, the majority of the respondents do not know the occupational hazards of the POP installation (1.22 ± 0.28). This finding agrees with the finding of researchers in (Geleta et al., 2021), who also found a low knowledge level of occupational hazards faced by artisanal welders. This may be due to the fact that, despite the launch of a few promising initiatives on health and safety enforcement in Ghana and its coverage over the past decade, the implementation of these initiatives in practise remains incomprehensible among POP installers. This is most likely due to the fact that all respondents received no formal training for the occupation and thus may not have had the opportunity to learn about the health risks associated with their occupation. A workplace’s control measures for occupational hazards might be strengthened if workers were aware of the risks (Geleta et al., 2021).

The results also confirmed that with a score of (3.99 ± 0.78), respondents claimed on average that they were aware of work-related hazards. This finding agrees with the finding of (Aluko et al., 2016; Omotosh et al., 2012), who also found high awareness level of the hazards among respondents. This is a positive development that will likely reduce workplace injuries (Omotosh et al., 2012). This is most likely due to the POP workers’ work experience. The majority of installers have at least ten (10) years of experience. Workers’ exposure to a variety of workplace hazards can be increased by the length of their employment. This, in turn, raises workers’ awareness, anticipation, and recognition of hazards over time (Geleta et al., 2021).

Findings in this study also revealed that with a score of (1.09 ± 0.17), the majority of the respondents claimed that they never made use of PPEs with POP installation. This characteristic means that the use of PPEs among the POP installers was low. This might have happened because there wasn’t enough support supervision during POP installation or regular training on how to use PPE properly. This finding is also in line with an earlier study by (Alemu et al., 2020) in 2020, which looked at “the utilisation of personal protective equipment and associated factors amongst building construction workers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,” and found that PPE utilisation among the construction workers studied was low. The authors in (Akintayo, 2013; Baye et al., 2022; Sehsah et al., 2020) reported that PPE utilisation was found to be low among construction workers, and researchers in (Chukwu et al., 2019) found that most workers were aware of PPEs but did not use them. Figure 2 displays POP installers working without any PPEs.

Figure 2. POP installers working without safety equipment.

However, this finding is also in contrast with the findings of (Acharya, 2014; Tadesse et al., 2016), where the magnitude of PPE utilization among workers was very high. This difference might be explained by variations in geographic location and other socioeconomic factors that were taken into account in the previous study. The use of PPE has been a thorny issue concerning artisans. Possible explanations for differences in PPE utilisation include work-related safety culture and level of awareness of occupational hazards. Again, most master craftsmen hire other installers as subcontractors to help them complete a large project at a low cost. This is a common practise among construction workers when it comes to large projects in the construction industry. This subcontracting practise may cause installers to work unsafely to save time and effort and thus earn more money (Wong et al., 2020). However, Hughes in 2009 admonishes that all equipment that is intended to be worn or held by a person at work and that protects him against one or more risks to his health or safety must be worn (Hughes, 2009). It is impossible to overstate the significance of using PPE in the workplace because it complements other control measures that have been put in place to control hazards.

In both the linear regression and correlation analyses of this current study, the use of PPE by workers positively predicts safety practises. The reliable finding was also documented in the study in Ethiopia (Geleta et al., 2021). According to (Chukwu et al., 2019), accidents on construction sites can be reduced when PPEs are used by all workers. The presence of various safety equipment at work would almost certainly prompt employees to follow safety rules and regulations in their daily routines. As a result, education programmes should be developed to improve knowledge about the work-related hazards of POP installation, with a particular emphasis on raising people’s awareness of the importance of wearing PPE at work.

The respondents concurred that they follow safety procedures when installing POP with a score of (3.39 ± 0.87). This may be because most respondents were aware of their work-related hazards as shown in Table 4. This demonstrates that following safety procedures when installing POP was significantly influenced by the level of awareness of work-related hazards. The findings concur with (Aluko et al., 2016; Okafoagu et al., 2017), where 80% of the respondents had a positive attitude towards work-related hazards and safety practises, compared to 20% who had a negative attitude. Given their positive attitudes toward workplace risks and safety procedures, it can be said that these employees are less likely to experience a workplace hazard (Okafoagu et al., 2017; Onowhakpor et al., 2017).

Even though the use of PPE by the study participants was quite low, the most preferred PPE were hand gloves followed by overalls and face masks, respectively. Safety boots were the least commonly used PPE according to results in Table 5. Similar findings were reported in (Nalugya et al., 2022; Okafoagu et al., 2017), where hand gloves, dungarees, and eye goggles were commonly used. Workers must wear all necessary worker-specific clothing or equipment to protect themselves from workplace hazards. Recognizing these facts, safety administration programmes should consider requiring the regular use of all necessary PPE to promote workplace health and safety (Tadesse et al., 2016).

The results also revealed that the most highly ranked two reasons why respondents do not use PPEs were, “I can’t use my hands to mix well when I am wearing the gloves, and the gloves reduce my flexibility to work efficiently.” The RII’s calculated values ranked these reasons first (RII = 0.83) and second (RII = 0.82). Never mix POP with your bare hands. Plaster of Paris is a potentially hazardous chemical. It’s a safe material for routine use if handled carefully. When mixed with water, this material hardens and slowly heats to 60 °C. If contact is maintained at 45 degrees Celsius, skin injuries (severe burns) can develop (Plaster of Paris, 2018). A comparable study by (Abrampa Apreko et al., 2015) found that the majority of respondents disagreed with the use of hand gloves to protect their hands. With the exception of welders and vulcanizers, they believed that their hands needed to be free for them to carry out workshop operations. It was discovered that their hands are easily bruised and have minor wounds that they do not consider occupational mishaps. Gattie (2020) asserted that workers who complain they can’t use their hands well when gloves are worn should choose the right gloves for the right job by having multiple sets of gloves in their toolbox to choose from because if the gloves don’t fit well, it can cause the hand to blister and prevent the worker from working safely (Gattie, 2020). Plaster of Paris is a hazardous product, as indicated, but if used carefully, it’s safe. To avoid harmful exposure, evaluate the plaster’s safety measures before using it.

Other reasons given for not using PPE by the respondents were “I can’t breathe well when I wear the face mask” and “Use of an overall reduces the flexibility of working and gets dirty quickly,” with RII calculated values of 0.80 and 0.79, respectively. Helmenstine (2020) issued a warning on the use of masks when exposed to the following risks: Plaster of Paris may include silica and asbestos, which, when breathed in, can harm the lungs permanently and result in various illnesses. Inhalable contaminants or calcium sulphate may be present in dry plaster (Helmenstine, 2020). Again, the use of skin-protective clothing is highly recommended when working with plaster of Paris to avoid plaster getting in contact with the skin (Helmenstine, 2020). All of these reasons, according to the respondents, are due to discomfort or, in some cases, a lack of PPEs. This is consistent with (Akintayo, 2013; Hughes, 2009; Wong et al., 2020), which found that the lack of equipment availability, the PPEs’ inability to withstand high temperatures, physical discomfort and the equipment’s weighty nature were the main justifications cited by the majority of respondents for not utilising PPE. Although PPE is needed for employees to use to decrease danger, it can also be uncomfortable for the wearer by adding a physiological burden from increased heat stress (Boakye et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2016). Furthermore, wearing a safety helmet may limit their field of vision and restrict their ability to move their heads, which would be inconvenient for plasterers who needed to apply a layer of plaster to ceilings (Wong et al., 2020). When site workers were discovered not to be wearing PPE, they all provided reasons for their actions. In (Sehsah et al., 2020), the reasons given include a lack of knowledge on how to use it and a poor fit of the PPEs. However, in (Alemu et al., 2020) the main reasons were the unavailability of the materials and the absence of an orientation programme on the use of the PPEs. The authors in (Tanko & Anigbogu, 2012) agree and attributed these acts by the workers to comfort and performance. Regarding the discomfort associated with wearing PPE, it was once thought that it was brought on by the PPE’s structure or material because different brands of PPE have varying degrees of ergonomic design and workmanship, which will impact how well construction workers use the PPE. Designers of construction workers’ PPE should understand their needs and challenges to improve its perceived usefulness and ease of use. When designing PPE for construction workers, designers should consider how ergonomic design and workmanship affect worker discomfort (Wong et al., 2020).

Additionally, the study revealed that knowledge of occupational hazards among workers negatively predicts PPE usage by the POP workers, thus suggesting that the fact that POP installers were aware of occupational hazards does not guarantee that they would use PPEs for their work, as confirmed in the work of (Chukwu et al., 2019). This finding relates to the results in Table 4 of this research. From the results, the majority of the survey respondents do not know the occupational hazards of POP installation, yet they never used PPE during POP installation. The finding is in line with (Nalugya et al., 2022), where a significant proportion of the welders in the study had a low-risk perception of occupational hazards and, did not understand the need for use of PPE. This finding is also in disagreement with (Afolabi et al., 2021), where artisans’ perception of occupational risk is associated with the use of PPE. The reason behind this negative prediction could be that prior workplace injuries may have increased the worker’s risk tolerance and sense of control over the hazards, which could have then resulted in maladaptive coping mechanisms. Their confidence in handling the threats might have increased had they learned more about occupational risk (Afolabi et al., 2021). Wong et al. (2020) confirmed in their study on critical factors for the use or non-use of PPE among construction workers that, while workers are aware of the occupational hazards of not wearing PPEs, their high or low perception of risk associated with the hazard is a guarantee to use or not use the PPEs for their work (Wong et al., 2020). This confirms the fact that the more workers use their PPEs, the more their safety is guaranteed for their work. This affirms the results obtained in Table 8.

Some socio-demographic characteristics of POP installers have been found to influence their awareness of occupational hazards. In this study, gender, age and marital status were statistically significantly associated with knowledge of occupational hazards. This finding agrees with (Chukwu et al., 2019; Geleta et al., 2021), where regression analysis revealed a statistically significant relationship between occupational hazards and socio-demographic characteristics; sex, age, employment duration and marital status. Workers become more exposed, experienced, and aware of various occupational hazards as they age (Onowhakpor et al., 2017). Again, regression analysis revealed that the level of education of POP installers positively predicted their knowledge of occupational hazards. The analysis shows that workers’ education levels had a significant impact on their level of knowledge about occupational hazards. This finding also corroborates the findings of (Geleta et al., 2021; Zyoud et al., 2010), where the level of education and work experience were some of the factors that considerably affected the level of knowledge on occupational hazards. Education could improve workers’ comprehension while also fostering a culture of safety at work. Education can also raise a person’s standard of living and capacity for interaction to acquire new knowledge (Tadesse et al., 2016).

Lastly, the analysis predicted that the work experience of POP installers negatively predicted their knowledge of occupational hazards. As seen in Table 4, the majority of survey respondents have at least ten (10) years of experience. One reason could be that those who have been in the job longer may have gotten used to it and developed a false sense of security, making them ignore safety precautions like occupational hazards and the right way to use PPE (Tadesse et al., 2016). Similar findings were observed concerning an increasing level of education and knowledge of occupational hazards. The reason for this is that with an increasing level of education, access to information tends to increase, resulting in a situation in which workers become knowledgeable of the potential hazards they may encounter in the workplace.

Compared to high-income countries, low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have less developed occupational safety and health systems (Yankson et al., 2021). In underdeveloped countries like Ghana, workplace health and safety is a challenge. Ghana has no national occupational health and safety (OHS) policy, especially for informal sector employees who contribute to economic growth (Abrampa Apreko et al., 2015). Given that Ghana’s construction business is classified as low-tech and mainly depends on labour-intensive methods, compliance with PPE use is crucial. Since manpower is readily accessible and costs less than equipment, most construction enterprises have been obliged to adopt a labour-intensive strategy (Boakye et al., 2022; Osei-Asibey, Ayarkwa, Acheampong, Adinyira, Amoah et al., 2021a, 2021b). The hassle of wearing personal protective equipment may reduce productivity and jeopardise workplace health and safety concerns. The issue for construction companies is to closely monitor the management of their labour safety systems to reduce occupational risk. If suitable personal protection equipment is not used, projects may be delayed and human resources used in construction may be lost (Ammad et al., 2020).

6. Conclusion

The study on Plaster of Paris (POP) installers’ awareness of occupational hazards and use of safety measures in Ghana’s Ho Municipality revealed that POP installers in the Ho Municipality hold occupational hazards and use measures in low regard. The POP installers lack knowledge, PPE use, and workplace safety. This may be due to the itinerary nature of POP installers’ work and the fact that they move from site to site quickly, installers aren’t given enough attention when planning construction workplace training. Most of the shortfalls in this study can be mitigated if companies encourage their POP installers or those they hire to participate in workplace training and skills upgrading programmes. With the advent of new media (social media), construction professional bodies can develop Short Learning Videos (SLV) based on safety practises and knowledge about occupational hazards for easy sharing on platforms, chatrooms, and learning management systems. Contractors’ associations must liaise with health and safety professionals, who may organise safety awareness training for members and ensure a holistic adoption of safety management practises to improve their safety practises’ image.

Ethical Approval

Before data collection, permission was obtained from the heads of the Artisans Association of Ghana and the Association of Building and Civil Engineering Contractors, Volta Regional Branch. Participants were briefed that their participation was optional and that their decision to participate or not had no effect on the outcome.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the support of the research assistants who collected the data and the study participants who cordially responded to our questionnaires. We also acknowledge the support of the heads of the Artisans Association of Ghana, Volta Region Branch, and the Association of Building and Civil Engineering Contractors, Volta Regional Branch, during the study period.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Notes on contributors

Divine Tuinese Novieto

Divine Tuinese Novieto obtained his Ph.D. in Building Technology from the Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development, DeMonfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom. He is a senior lecturer in the Department of Building Technology at Ho Technical University. His research interests are Health and safety management, Building Physics, Thermal Comfort and Building Technology.