https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7242-5655
Abstract
This paper investigates the effect of the SiC and triplex thermal aging treatment (TTAT) on the mechanical behavior of compound bars. The bars were fabricated by varying the SiC (2, 4 and 6 wt. %) in Al6061. Initially, bars were tested for hardness and compression strength in homogenized conditions. It is observed that as SiC is increased in the matrix, mechanical properties have improved. The bars with composite cores exhibited better properties as compared to bars with composite casing. For the bar having a composite core, with 2 wt. % SiC, the compression strength was 530.70 MPa, for the 4 wt.% SiC core it was 589.35 MPa and for the 6 wt.% SiC it was 691.88 MPa. Failure was progressive, with noticeable signs of failure, and the load-bearing ability was found to be fairly stable up to nearly 218 kN. Later, the bar with a 6 wt. % SiC core was subjected to TTAT, and surface hardness, compression strength, and interfacial shear strength were found to have increased by 11.2, 3.2 and 11.11%, respectively. SiC are the hard particles; reinforcing them in a soft matrix induces strain in the lattice and thus enhances the hardness of the composite. During aging, the diffusion of alloy atoms is blocked by the generated dislocations present around the SiC particles. Hence, the bars with a higher quantity of SiC in the composite core can be used for high load-bearing structural applications due to their superior mechanical properties as an alternative to the simple composite bars with the same SiC quantity.
1. Introduction
There have been efforts for decades to develop light-weight and high-strength materials for structures used in aerospace and automobile applications. Aluminum alloys have been most considered by researchers to develop new materials because of their low density, high thermal conductivity and high specific strength. These properties are most favorable for getting an economic advantage (Hassan and Gupta, Citation2005; Ostad Shabani and Mazahery, Citation2011; Zhao et al., Citation2008). Aluminum alloys, however, possess low hardness and poor wear characteristics, which limit their applications for high-performance mechanical and wear applications (Mazahery and Shabani, Citation2012). To overcome these problems, hard particles are reinforced in the alloy to improve the specific strength, stiffness, wear performance and fatigue properties (Bindumadhavan et al., Citation2001; Chung and Hwang, Citation1994; Lim et al., Citation1999; Roy et al., Citation1992; Skolianos and Kattamis, Citation1993). The advantage of dispersing particulates is that they lead to composites that are isotropic and can be easily processed through solid-state processing or liquid-state processing techniques. Powder metallurgy and friction stir processing/welding are the popular approaches in solid state processing routes to prepare composites, whereas stir casting, centrifugal casting and in-situ processes are commonly adapted techniques in liquid state processing. Powder metallurgy consists of wet mixing of the powders of matrix and reinforcements, followed by cold isostatic pressing, degassing, sintering, and hot isostatic pressing. The friction stir processing and welding process uses a hard and rotating tool that penetrates the workpiece and traverses in a forward direction. With this approach, reinforcing particles penetrate the metal surface at a certain depth. The stir casting process involves melting the matrix material, pouring the reinforcements into the melt, and achieving an appropriate distribution and bonding through stirring. Centrifugal casting is one of the most widely adapted, simplest, and low-cost processes to achieve continuous gradient composites. In an in-situ process, the matrix material is initially melted. Then the reinforcements are formed in situ in the molten alloy by displacement reactions between the alloying elements or between the alloying elements and the ceramic compounds (Sowrabh et al., Citation2021).
Ceramic particulates are the most popular reinforcements with Al alloys because of their ability to enhance the mechanical properties without increasing the density of composites (Deuis et al., Citation1996; Jiang et al., Citation2016; Karabulut et al., Citation2016; Mosisa et al., Citation2016; Sharifi et al., 2011; Tang et al., Citation2008). The commonly used ceramic particles have been SiC (Moazami-Goudarzi and Akhlaghi, Citation2016; Singh, Citation2016) and B4C. Aluminium metal matrix composites (AMMCs) are lightweight materials used for high-performance applications in defense, aerospace, automobiles, biotechnology, nuclear field, and in sports and recreational industries (Mohammad Sharifi et al., Citation2011). The most studied properties of Al alloys and their composites have been the axial crush behavior, which has huge scope to adapt such materials for increasing the crash worthiness of structural parts.
Gatea et al. (Citation2018), in their study, have employed O-condition annealing due to the fact that this can improve the ductility of 6xxx aluminium alloys, according to the recommendations of ASM. O-condition annealing was found to reduce the detrimental effect of the intermetallic compounds in the interface region and improve the toughness and ductility of the material by decreasing the intermetallic compound (Al2Cu). However, the Al/SiC treated with O-condition annealing is observed to be more sensitive to the strain rate than the one treated with T6.
Some authors (Halil et al., Citation2019) have subjected the Al6061/SiC/B4C composite to T6 aging heat treatment after extrusion. The composite materials were processed for 1 h dissolution at 530 °C and then immediately cooled in water. The cooled samples are then artificially aged for 8 h by heating at 175 °C with a heating speed of 10 °C/min. Their results indicate that the incorporation of reinforcements and, simultaneously, the heat treatment have led to an increase in the tensile strength and the hardness of the composites.
The present authors (Shivaprakash et al., Citation2022), in their study on Al6061/SiC/h-BN composite, have subjected the cast composite to homogenization treatment at 550 °C for 5 h followed by furnace cooling. Their results showed that the mechanical properties were superior as compared to the cast alloy.
The present investigation focuses on developing the cascaded Al6061/Al6061-SiCp bars (alloy casing and composite core or vice versa) by conventional stir casting process to evaluate their hardness, compressive strength, and shear behavior under steady loading conditions. The study is also dedicated to evaluating these properties by varying the reinforcement quantity and by performing triplex thermal aging treatment (TTAT) on cascaded composite bars.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials and methods
2.1.1. 6061 Aluminium alloy
This material is procured from Hindalco Industries Limited, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The raw aluminium alloy was in the form of extruded flats with a T6 temper. The chemical elements of the as-received alloy are given in .
Table 1. Chemical elements in as received Al6061.
2.1.2. Silicon carbide (SiC)
SiC particles used in the present work were in the range of 15–35 µm, respectively. SiC particles exhibit high hardness and low coefficient of thermal expansion. Also, these are highly wear-resistant and have good mechanical properties such as high temperature strength and thermal shock resistance. The SEM image of SiC particles is shown in .
Figure 1. SEM micrograph of SiC particles.
2.1.3. Stir casting
The schematic of stir casting equipment is as shown in .
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of stir casting equipment (Bhowmik et al., Citation2020).
The mold surfaces were polished with emery paper and cleaned with acetone to remove dust, grease, and any other foreign particles. The surfaces are coated with the paste formed by a mixture of graphite, acetone, and water for ease of removal of casting and to avoid sticking molten material to die walls. The dies are then preheated to 550 °C for 2 h in a muffle furnace to aid in the uniform cooling of the melt as it is poured into them. The graphite crucible loaded with ingots (as received at T6 condition) of Al6061 alloy is taken into the melting furnace, and the temperature of the furnace is raised to 800 °C. Into the melt at this temperature, alkaline powder (10 g) is added to remove the slag and then further added with hexachloroethane (C2Cl6, 10 g) to degasify the melt and break the pores in it. Also, about 10 g of NUCLEANT 70 [dipotassium hexafluorotitanate] is added to allow for refining the grains. The melt is now poured at 800 °C into the preheated molds to cast the cylindrical and rectangular specimens.
To cast the composite, after degasifying, slag removal and grain refiner addition to the melt at 800 °C, it is stirred at 150 rpm by using a stainless-steel stirrer blade coated with zirconia to create a deep vortex. The reinforcements are now added to the melt vortex through a stainless-steel feeder and stirring for 10 min. The melt is now brought to semisolid state by cooling it to 600 °C and stirred for 10 min at 250 rpm. The melt temperature is then increased to 800 °C, and continued to stir again for 10 min at 150 rpm. The composite melt is now poured at 800 °C into the preheated molds to cast specimens. The as-cast specimens are further homogenized at 500 °C for 8 h and allowed to cool in the furnace. shows the schematic of cast compound bar specimens for the present study. In the compound bar, the diameter of the core/inner is d2 and that of the casing/outer is d1. shows the coding of different specimens.
Figure 3. Schematic representation of compound bar.
Table 2. Coding of specimens for experimentation.
2.2. Testing of homogenized compound bar specimens
2.2.1. Hardness test
To check for hardness, the material is cut into cylindrical blocks. Each cross-sectional surface of the block is polished in a polishing machine with silicon carbide paper mounted on a disc rotating at 360 rpm until the mirror surface is formed on the surface. The grit sizes of 320, 400, 600, 1000, 1500, and 2000 are used during polishing in sequence. Followed by this velvet cloth, fine polishing is done on the surface with a disc speed of 545 rpm. A diamond suspension of 3 µm and 1 µm is used in sequence on cloth while fine polishing.
Hardness tests were done using a Brinell hardness tester as per the ASTM E10 standard. The hardness test was conducted with four indentations on each of the outer and inner surfaces of the compound bar. All of the values obtained were considered in the calculation of the average hardness of the surface.
2.2.2. Compression test
The compression test is conducted on UTM as per the ASTM E9 standard with a crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/min. Compression test specimens are cylinders with a ratio of length to diameter L/D < 2, to avoid non-axial motion. It is observed from the test that S10 has the highest compressive strength, comparatively.
2.2.3. TTAT of S10 compound bar
Heat treatment is a process carried out on materials to increase grain growth and strength (Loto and Babalola, Citation2018). The dendritic structure, impurities, and intermetallic particles in wrought and as-cast alloys remarkably give rise to negative influences on mechanical response and limit several end-use applications. Therefore, heat treatment is an indispensable step in multiple processing sectors and developed in today’s industry to eliminate the above defects as much as possible. Among those heat treatment methods, aging treatment is the most common and effective approach that can not only reduce or eliminate the micro-stress in the matrix after the quenching process but can also improve the strength and hardness of the alloy by modifying the quantity, size and distribution of intermetallic particles (Alphonse et al., Citation2021).
The heat treatment has a clear influence on the alloy’s topographical response to ambient conditions (Zhang et al., Citation2020). The multiple-step aging process is a heat treatment process derived from solution-aging treatment (Ali Fageehi et al., Citation2021). Longer duration in isothermal heat treatment (single-step aging) of alloys for industrial purposes can be eliminated by adopting the multiple step aging treatment for achieving similar mechanical properties (Liu et al., Citation2021; Omer et al., Citation2018; Österreicher et al., Citation2018). Generally, the first step of aging is a low-temperature process in which fine distribution of GP zones takes place. In the subsequent higher temperature steps, complete precipitation will be achieved (Lee et al., Citation2018; Stemper et al., Citation2021). A good processing method combined with an appropriate aging condition can significantly promote the optimization of the microstructure and performance of the alloys (Jiang et al., Citation2021; Liu et al., Citation2020; Zhou et al., Citation2021). The triplex thermal aging treatment process adapted for the S10 specimen has been depicted in .
Figure 4. TTAT process adapted for S10 specimen.
2.2.4. Testing of combined homogenized and triplex thermal aged compound bar
The shear test is conducted as per ASTM B769 standard. The process of applying shear load on specimen has been depicted in .
Figure 5. The process loading in double shear test.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Hardness
lists the hardness of homogenized alloy, composite and compound bar specimens. S10 specimen is found to exhibit highest hardness in comparison to other compound bars.
Table 3. Results of hardness test performed on specimens.
As observed in , as the quantity of SiC increases, the average hardness of the composite also increases. The hard particles of SiC, when reinforced in a larger quantity of 6 wt% in the matrix, have led to the highest hardness of the composite. The SiC reinforcements basically act as hindrances and oppose the movement of dislocations (Rahimian et al., Citation2010).
Figure 6. Variation of average hardness of composite bar surface with the quantity of reinforcement in non-heat-treated condition.
The improvement in hardness of the S10 specimen due to TTAT has been depicted in (94.3–104.9 BHN). This is attributed to accelerated aging kinetics due to the presence of high-density dislocation that eventually leads to enhanced hardness (Xiu et al., Citation2015). Also, harder SiC particles, when reinforced, will give rise to the dispersion hardening effect, act as a secondary phase preventing dislocation, and hence further harden the composite (Reddy et al., Citation2018).
Figure 7. Variation of average hardness of composite bars.
3.2. Compression test
3.2.1. Homogenized compound bars and S11 specimen
The failure modes of homogenized compound bars have been depicted in . The specimens shown in figures (a) and (b) have casing (outer) made of composite, whereas specimens shown in figures (c) and (d) have core (inner) made of composite. The compressive load on compound bars has resulted in the initiation of failure through local buckling of the end area. As the load is further increased the bulging was noticed at the mid height of specimens with many small cracks appearing in the bulge portion. The axial cracks have further propagated circularly and expanded axially. As the ultimate load was reached many deep and widened cracks formed and the load bearing capacity was finally lost. The failure modes as shown in are mainly t buckling and splitting. These failure modes involve localized buckling followed by micro crack formation. These micro cracks have grown gradually and had shallow depth with shorter length as observed for S10 specimen which was having highest quantity of SiC in the core.
Figure 8. Sample failure pattern of compound bar specimens of (a) 4 wt.% SiC(outer) (b) 6 wt.% SiC(outer) (c) 4 wt.% SiC(inner) (d) 6 wt.% SiC(inner) during compression test.
depicts the comparison of variation in compression strength among all specimens. As can be seen from , the strength will be superior for composite core with the highest SiC reinforcement (S10). Also, the compound bars having core as composite can take more load and possess superior strength. This could be the direct contribution from the NUCLEANT 70 added during the casting which has helped for reducing the grain size leading to Hall–Petch effect in aluminium MMCs.
Figure 9. Variation of compression strength of compound bar specimens.
The SiC particles act as the barriers to dislocations and hence higher quantity of these reinforcements have provided to increase the load taking ability and hence the compressive strength of S10 specimen. Additionally, the improved strength of this specimen is attributed to the fact that SiC by itself is harder as compared to Al6061 and hence has resisted deformation stresses effectively. Also, the uniform dispersion of SiC, good bonding with matrix in the composite core and importantly very minimal voids and good diffusion bonding that occurred at the interface of core and casing has led to the enhanced properties. The SEM and optical images shown in give evidence of this scenario. Besides this, the composite as a core in S10 contributes to enhancing strength by increasing the stiffness from center to outwards in the radial direction.
Figure 10. SEM of core portion of S10 showing the uniform distribution of SiC particles in the Al6061 matrix.
Figure 11. Micro voids location in (a) S5 and (b) S8 specimens during compression test.
Figure 12. Micro voids nucleation failure in cut surface of S8 after compression test.
Figure 13. Macrograph and Optical microscope images showing the firm diffusion interface of core and casing of S10 specimen.
Because of the application of external load on AMMCs, they undergo ductile failure by void nucleation. A similar failure style is observed in SEM image of S8 specimen. It is as depicted in . The voids might have been created because of debonding of reinforcement. These voids are typically caused by the poor wetting of the reinforcement with the matrix, as well as weak interfacial bonding (Krishnan et al., Citation2019).
The specimen S10 is subjected to heat treatment as per the process depicted in and heat-treated specimen (S11) is tested for its compression strength. The SEM-EDAX images of this sample is depicted in .
Figure 14. SEM-EDAX of core portion of S11 showing the uniform distribution of SiC particles in the Al6061 matrix and the evolved phase due to TTAT.
The variation of compression strength due to TTAT are depicted in . As can be noticed, the heat treatment has increased the peak load and the compression strength of S11 specimen. This improvement is due to the faster diffusion phenomenon of atoms at higher aging temperatures with an increased quantity of nucleation sites and intermediate stages at lower aging temperatures. Also, the homogenization followed by multiple steps (three in the present study) of aging will remove chemical composition heterogeneity in the alloy, give a greater number of nucleation sites for the nucleation of intermetallics with an excessive increase in diffusion rates during isothermal holding, and hence increase hardness and compressive properties.
3.2. Shear test
The results of shear test on S11 specimen have been shown in . As seen from the results that the interfacial shear strength increases because of triplex aging treatment and it amounts to 11.11%. This trend may be due to increased atomic diffusion induced because of prolonged aging duration and the higher aging temperature (Cheng and Zhang, Citation2015).
Table 4. Results of shear test of 6 wt.% SiC(inner) compound bar.
Macroscopically the shear fracture is expressed mainly as the interface debonding between SiC and the Al6061 matrix. shows the SEM of the shear fracture surface. It can be noticed that the cleavage cracking is predominant in the material. The cleavage cracking in conjunction with an inter granular micro-void are found to be dominant. There is even coalescence of micro voids which has led to bigger sized voids (). The presence of river pattern is the indication that the fracture is fully ductile in nature ().
Figure 15. (a) SEM image showing voids (b) SEM image showing ductile fracture.
Conclusions
The compound bars with composite casing and core were successfully prepared by stir casting. The compound bars that were homogenized were tested for mechanical properties. The results of the test indicated that as the quantity of SiC increases, the hardness of the composite increases. The compression failure modes of homogenized specimens were mainly buckling and splitting. These failure modes involved localized buckling, followed by microcrack formation. The compound bars with a composite core and a higher reinforcement quantity can withstand a higher load. The improved strength of this specimen is also attributed to the fact that SiC by itself is harder as compared to Al6061 and hence has resisted deformation stresses effectively during compression. Further, due to TTAT, there have been accelerated aging kinetics due to the presence of high-density dislocation that eventually led to enhanced hardness. Also, the homogenization followed by TTAT will remove chemical composition heterogeneity in the alloy. Further, the shear strength was improved because of increased atomic diffusion induced by prolonged aging at a higher aging temperature. The results of this study show that the compound bars under consideration have the potential to be used as column components and as aircraft structural compression load bearing members.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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