Appraisal of household safety practices of extension cord usage in Ho Municipality, Ghana

Abstract

This paper aims to assess the level of awareness of safety precautions in the use of extension cords in Ho Municipality in Ghana. The relevance of this study is to provide an understanding of the awareness level of safety measures likely to lead to a significant reduction in incidents of domestic fire outbreaks when using an extension cord. A cross-sectional research was carried out in the Ho Municipality between February and April 2022. Six hundred and one (601) individuals were chosen from houses using a random selection method. A standardised questionnaire was used to gather data, and then entered and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) V.16. Descriptive statistics, Binary logistic regression analysis with a 0.05 p-value and the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI), Relative Importance Index (RII), and the Sample T-test were used to examine the significance of connections. Among the participants, there is a low level of awareness of extension cord ratings and standard labels from autonomous testing facilities. The participants’ knowledge of awareness was significantly related to gender; [0.722 (95% (CI): 1.476 – 2.869), p = 0.001 < (0.05)]. Again, most participants overload the extension cord during usage and practice poor safety measures that could result in a fire outbreak. The study suggests that users should purchase extension cords that have been endorsed by an autonomous testing laboratory and fully be educated on the safety procedures that will aid in safeguarding lives and property by both government and non-governmental agencies.

IMPACT STATEMENT

There is currently a known scarcity of data in the literature on household consumer extension cord usage that contributes significantly to home electrical fires. Extension cords provide temporary power to devices or equipment. They don’t replace outlets and wiring permanently. This paper aims to assess the level of awareness of safety precautions in the use of extension cords. This study’s relevance is to understand the awareness level of safety measures likely to reduce extension cord-related domestic fires. Results show that there is a low level of awareness of extension cord ratings and standard labels from autonomous testing facilities. Most participants overloaded the extension cord and used poor safety measures, which could cause a fire. Only buy extension cords that have been authorised by an independent testing laboratory, such as the underwriters’ Laboratories (UL) and make sure the label is stamped. The testing laboratory issues an endorsement or posting of the extension cord, proving that it fulfils relevant requirements.

Keywords:

• Appraisal
• extension cord
• fire outbreak
• safety precaution
• safety practices
• Ho Municipality

Reviewing Editor:

• Qingsong Ai, Wuhan University of Technology, China

Subjects:

• Environmental Management
• Electrical & Electronic Engineering
• Engineering Education
• Technology

1. Introduction

Extension cords, as displayed in Figure 1, provide a convenient method of bringing temporary power to a device or piece of equipment, and according to (Neitzel, 2016), their usage dates to the mid-1940s. An extension cord is essentially a bundle of insulated electrical wires with a plug on each end. Characteristically, the cords are generally flexible and of a low cross-section with stranded bare conductors (Parise & Parise, 2014). The cords can be used where there are fewer electrical outlets and more equipment to be plugged in. Therefore, an extension cord extends power to the desired location (Lynch, 2009; 2014). In recent times, there have been different types and lengths of electrical extension cords with varying capacities for both indoor and outdoor use. For example, indoor extension cords can be either grounded or not grounded, and their lengths can range from 1800 mm to 4500 mm. On the other hand, outdoor extension cords can stand up to the weather and come in both general-use and all-weather versions. Furthermore, most extension cords range from 600 mm to 9000 mm long. However, factors such as gauge (i.e. the thickness or diameter of the wire in the extension cord) and length affect the capacity and function of an extension cord. The most common sizes of gauges for extension cords available today include 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18. The smaller the gauge value, the thicker the wire (DeBoer, 2019). The length of the extension cord also sometimes affects the voltage drop. Voltage drop occurs when there is too much resistance from the electricity flowing through the wire of an extension cord.

Figure 1. Samples of extension cord.

Fires have become a common occurrence in Ghana, claiming hundreds of lives and millions of dollars each year. Almost every day brings word of a fire breaking out in some sections of Ghana, sparking dread and panic among the populace (Addai et al., 2016) due to the lack of knowledge and information about the basic use of electricity. According to the Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) fire outbreak statistics for 2009, electrical fires accounted for 218 out of 2,584 total fire outbreaks as of January 25, 2010, with some of these fire outbreaks stemming from overloading an extension cord with too many appliances, which causes it to become overheated, resulting in an electrical house fire (Fighting Electrical Fire Outbreaks is a collective responsibility, 2010). Domestic fire outbreaks are on the rise, according to the Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS), with the largest numbers in 2019 and 2020. From January through October, the years 2019 and 2020 had 1,822 and 1,910 fire outbreaks, respectively (Fire outbreaks on the rise, 2021).

Electrical fires in the home can start in wiring, electrical distribution systems, and lighting equipment, as well as in any electrically powered equipment such as cooking, heating, office and entertainment equipment, washers and dryers, electrical distribution (including extension cords), or lighting equipment (Campbell, 2019). In fact, an extension cord was the cause of a big, expensive fire in a United States office building for the executive branch in 1998. Improper use of easily overloaded, unapproved extension cords can pose a serious fire safety risk in both the workplace and the home (Fast Facts, 2010). In 1997, 12,000 people were treated for electrical shocks and burns, 2,500 of them from extension cords. Each year, hospital emergency rooms treat 4,000 extension cable-related injuries (McLeod, 2016).

There is currently a known scarcity of data in the literature on household consumer extension cord usage that contributes significantly to home electrical fires. This paper, therefore, assessed the level of awareness of safety precautions in the use of extension cords in the Ho Municipality in Ghana. This research is significant because understanding the level of awareness of safety measures and following them is likely to result in a significant reduction in the incidence of domestic fire outbreaks caused by the use of an extension cord. This is because people’s safety awareness when using extension cords can’t be ignored if fires caused by extension cords happen less often and less often in homes. This research will also contribute to the few existing studies and provide up-to-date information on the studies related to extension cord usage by household consumers due to the acknowledged dearth of data in research.

2. Literature review

2.1. Characteristics of an extension cord

Extension cords offer electricity to equipment with wires that are unable to connect to any nearby electrical outlets. It is important to select the proper type of extension cable to maintain electrical safety and prevent house fires, as described below.

2.1.1. Plug type

Most extension plugs contain a few prongs. Three-prong connectors are grounded, but two-prong plugs are not. The third prong, which fits into the circular space underneath the two vertical apertures on a standard 240-volt outlet, activates the ground wire in an electrical circuit and significantly reduces the risk of electric shock or fire (What is the Difference Between Two- & Three-pronged Plugs? 2021). If a device fails or loose wires come into contact with a metal casing, the grounded three-prong fitting will divert electricity from the hot wire into the ground rather than into your hand. As a result, it is strongly suggested that you never attempt to remove or change the third prong of a grounded socket.

2.1.2. Length

Another important consideration is the length of the extension cord. Because voltage decreases with distance, shorter lines are preferable for operating devices with higher current requirements. Shorter lines are normally OK for most devices since using a longer connection for a device with a greater current might damage your hardware or pose a security risk. If all else fails, use the shortest cord (What-Length-Extension-Cord-Should-I-Use? 2018).

2.1.3. Amperage ratings

Extension cord ratings vary depending on the amperage and watts that they can safely transport, both of which are controlled by the wire gauge. Each extension cable’s amperage rating is or should be indicated on a tag connected to the cord, although this label is not always present or visible. When choosing an extension cord, it is very important to think about the wattage and amperage ratings of the device that will be plugged into it. In most circumstances, the usual basic household extension cable is completely adequate for simple items such as lamps, radios, televisions, and other gadgets. Typically, 16-gauge wire is used in these basic extension cables (Thiele, 2022).

2.1.4. Gauge

Since the mid-1800s, the diameter of the wires in an extension cord has been measured in terms of American Wire Gauge (AWG), which is often shortened to ‘gauge’ and written as a number. The most common domestic extension cord gauges are 16 gauge (the smallest), 14 gauge, 12 gauge, and 10 gauge (the biggest). The stronger the amperage and wattage, the larger the gauge and the lower the number. Furthermore, a bigger gauge wire will transport electricity over a greater distance without decreasing the voltage as much as a smaller gauge cord. Voltage reduces with distance, so use a bigger gauge cord to compensate. This is especially crucial for motorised equipment. Running a motor on inadequate voltage might result in irreparable harm (Extension Cords Buying Guide, 2022).

2.1.5. Other features

Another factor to consider is the number of outlets provided by an extension cable. For some applications, this element can have a significant impact and should be considered along with your selection. Cords with a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) will, as a result, cut down electricity in the event of a ground fault, providing further security. Cords with light-up stops that indicate when the string is controlled are useful for a variety of purposes, as is a cord with a connector box, a device that wraps around both the extension cord plug and the connection on the connected electrical device to keep them from pulling apart (Novieto et al., 2023).

Indoor extension cords come in both grounded and ungrounded varieties, with lengths ranging from 3' to 15'. Low-wattage sixteen-gauge cables are designed for use with tiny appliances such as portable fans, alarm clocks, table lights, or floor lamps. Electronic devices such as a TV or computer should be connected to a surge protector (Extension Cords Buying Guide, 2022).

Outdoor extension cables are weather-resistant, approved by a testing laboratory, and are also suitable for use indoors. Outdoor cords come in general-purpose and all-weather varieties. All-weather cables are designed to remain flexible in sub-zero conditions, making them the perfect solution for extreme cold and also including an illuminated connection for night-time visibility (Extension Cords Buying Guide, 2022).

2.1.6. Cord and cable abbreviations

The National Electric Code (NEC) classifications reflect the intended application and durability of the cables. This is mostly determined by the type of insulating cover or jacket used to protect the wires that carry electrical power. The power capacity, or voltage, of the cord is also indicated; look for a ‘letter,’ as illustrated in Table 1 (Extension Cord Selection Guide, n. d.) that is suitable.

Table 1. Cord and cable abbreviations. (Extension Cord Safety: A Comprehensive Guide, 2022).

S/No	Letter	Meaning
1.	S	This denotes a flexible cord intended for general use.
2.	W	This indicates that the cord is suitable for outdoor use.
3.	J	This indicates that the cord has standard 300-volt insulation. If the cord does not have a J in its designation, it has thicker, 600-volt insulation and is intended for heavier use.
4.	P	This denotes the use of parallel wire construction in air conditioners and household extension cords.
5.	T	This denotes that the cord jacket is vinyl thermoplastic.
6.	E	The cord jacket is made of thermoplastic elastomer rubber (TPE).
7.	O	This indicates that the cord is resistant to oil.

2.2. Extension cord as a potential hazard in fire outbreaks

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion (Agyekum et al., 2016; Wahab, 2015) which involves the emission of heat, light and reactive products. Fire outbreaks, which have attracted worldwide attention in recent years as environmental, economic (Agyekum et al., 2016), and social issues, have often created a moment of crisis in the everyday lives of households (Paller, 2019). From available statistics in Ghana as of 2013, fire incidents have become a regular occurrence (Addai et al., 2016), as suggested by the fact that 41% (10,355 incidents) of fire incidents in Ghana are domestic or household fire outbreaks, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Domestic fire incidents in Ghana from 2007–2013 (Addai et al., 2016).

Year	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	Total
Number of incidents	1,354	1,267	1,241	1,075	1,315	2,040	2,063	10,355

In this regard, Boateng (2013) claims that the upsurge in fire outbreaks can be traced to the overloading of electrical appliances on the same fuse, and improper electrical installation in homes (Boateng, 2013). On the contrary, Agyekum et al. (2016) and Twum-Barima (2014) indicated that the use of substandard electrical materials and the wrongful use of extension sockets were major causes of fire outbreaks in Ghana (Agyekum et al., 2016; Twum-Barima, 2014). However, reference (Wahab, 2015) opinion is that the lack of fire safety awareness is another cause of fire outbreaks. Notwithstanding the above arguments, extension cords, which are used in households to supply power to electrical equipment and gadgets, have been demonstrated to ignite fire (Parise et al., 2019).

According to (Parise et al., 2019), ‘in electrical power systems, extension cords are exposed to mechanical damage and other insulation stresses.’ The extension cords become fire hazards when exposed. The authors (Adekunle et al., 2016) also stated that misuse of extension cords is often the cause of fire outbreaks due to overheating. According to firefighters, the fire was started by an extension cord that had been strained beneath the edge of a seat. The agents confirmed that the residence had become a total disaster. The proliferation of electrical appliances has the potential to overload a home’s electrical wiring. The use of extension cords may increase due to a lack of available outlets. Cords and plugs, as well as fixed wiring, are among the most common items involved in fires (Rasbash, 1983). Between 2004 and 2017, there were 28,160 home fires in British Columbia, with 2,635 (9.40%) being electrical fires, including extension cord-related fires. These electrical fires resulted in 150 casualties (deaths and injuries combined) and damages totalling slightly more than $150 million (Zheng et al., 2019).

The NEC, NFPA 70E, and OSHA all mandate the use of a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) whenever extension cords are connected to a temporary power source, such as a temporary post-administration generator, or a structure’s permanent wiring (Neitzel, 2016). Electric shock can be avoided with the use of a GFCI. If an individual’s body begins to stun, the GFCI detects this and turns off the force before he or she is damaged. GFCIs are often installed in areas where electrical circuits may come into contact with water and are common in kitchens, showers, and pantries, as well as in places where electric force equipment is used. A ‘ground fault,’ according to the National Electrical Code, is a directed relationship (whether intentional or accidental) between any electric conveyor and any leading material that is grounded or may become grounded (Kimball & Henry, 2009).

3. Research methodology

3.1. Study area

With a total area of 11.65 km2, the city of Ho is located between latitudes 6° 20 1 N and 60° 55 1 N, and longitudes 0° 12 1E and 0° 53 1E, as shown in Figure 2. The biggest cities have temperatures ranging from 22 to 32 degrees Celsius. Ho is the Volta Region’s administrative and commercial centre, as well as one of the region’s twelve districts, with a population of 180,420 inhabitants according to the 2020 population and housing census. The city’s growth requirements and investment opportunities include infrastructure, environmental management, social services, financial management, and institutional skills (Ho Municipal (Municipal District, Ghana) – Population Statistics, Charts, Maps & Location., 2022; Dzah et al., 2022).

Figure 2. Map of Ho Municipal area. (Arku et al., 2008).

3.2. Study population and sample size

All citizens of Ho Municipality were included in the target population. For small populations, the normal approximation to the hypergeometric distribution formula was used to calculate the sample size, as indicated in Equation (1)(1) $$\mathrm{n}=\frac{N{Z}^2\mathit{\text{pq}}}{\left(E^2\right(N-1)+Z^2\mathit{\text{pq}})},$$(1) . The term ‘small population’ refers to individuals who live in the Ho Municipality (Dzah et al., 2022; Apprey et al., 2024). (1) $$\mathrm{n}=\frac{N{Z}^2\mathit{\text{pq}}}{\left(E^2\right(N-1)+Z^2\mathit{\text{pq}})},$$(1)

Where;

N = (population size of Ho Municipality = 180,420); pq = (projected percentage of success and failure was 50%. because there had been no previous study at the time of this investigation); E = (margin of error = 3%) and Z = (standard score value for 85% confidence level), the minimum sample size (n) was 575.

3.3. Data collection and instrument design

Several households were chosen at random to investigate extension cord safety awareness. The researchers employed a pre-tested, structured interviewer-administered questionnaire that was created following a thorough review of the literature. A total of 650 questionnaires were administered to residents to assess their level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords and to what extent they adhered to them.

The questionnaire had three (3) major sections. The first section encompassed the personal information of respondents, which included their age, gender, educational qualification, occupation, type of housing, and general knowledge about extension cords (usage and wattage ratings). The second section related to the objective of this research was to examine the level of awareness of safety measures (before use, during use, and after use (maintenance)) to be adopted in the use of extension cords and to what extent they adhered to them to reduce the incidence of extension cord-related fire incidents in their various homes. The respondents answered the questions based on a five-point Likert scale rating with five (5) being the highest rating and interpreted as 1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Uncertain (Neutral), 4= Agree, and 5= Strongly agree. The final section detailed the findings on the rating of the overall level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords to prevent fire outbreaks. The sample T-testing was adopted to analyse the data obtained.

In administering the questionnaires to the respondents in their homes, a random sampling technique was adopted in each of the selected homes. The adoption of the random sampling technique was influenced by its characteristic of being suitable for avoiding bias often associated with other sampling techniques (Creswel, 2009). At the end of the survey, which took place from February 15, 2022, to April 14, 2022, 601 of the 650 questionnaires that were sent to sampled households in Ho Municipality were returned. This is a response rate of 92.4%. The data collected were analysed with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 19.

The analytical tools used were binary logistic regression, the relative importance index (RII), and one sample T-test.

4. Results

An assessment of the safety awareness of the use of extension cords was conducted in Ho Municipality, Ghana. Reliability of internal consistency, biodata, perception of selection before use, usage, and maintenance of extension cords, and safety measures were questions answered by the respondents, and the results were presented.

4.1. Reliability analysis

Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the reliability of the internal consistency. When the Cronbach alpha falls below 0.3, it is generally accepted that the data cannot be trusted. When the Cronbach is greater than 0.7, the data is considered credible (Bolarinwa, 2015; Taber, 2018). Cronbach’s alpha was estimated in this study using the statistical program SPSS v.19, as indicated in Table 3 below; which shows that the Cronbach alpha for each category as well as the overall data (0.817) was found to be higher than 0.7. Thus, the results in Table 3 prove the data is reliable and consistent for the test items.

Table 3. Results of data using Cronbach's Alpha.

Test	Variable	Items	Cronbach alpha (α)
1	Selection before use	8	0.848
2	During use	17	0.795
3	After use (Maintenance)	7	0.764
4	Fire safety	4	0.860
Overall		36	0.817

4.2. Profile of respondents

The results from Table 4 show that 58.6% of the respondents were males and 41.4% of the respondents were females. The results also depict that 13.8% of the respondents were under 25 years old, 40.8% of the respondents were 26 to 34 years old, 21.6% of the respondents were 35 to 44 years old, 15.8% of the respondents were 45 to 54 years old, and 8% of the respondents were 55 years old or older.

Table 4. Profile of respondents.

Demographic characteristics category		Freq	Score (%)
Gender	Male	352	58.6
	Female	249	41.4
	Total	601	100.0
Age	Under 25 years	83	13.8
	26–34 years	245	40.8
	35–44 years	130	21.6
	44–54 years	95	15.8
	Over 55 years	48	8.0
	Total	601	100.0
Educational qualification	No Formal Education	9	1.5
	Basic	50	8.3
	Junior High School (JHS)	35	5.8
	Senior High School (SHS)	197	32.8
	HND/Diploma	137	22.8
	Bachelor	128	21.3
	Masters	29	4.8
	PhD	16	2.7
	Total	601	100.0
Type of housing of respondents	Single room	201	33.4
	Hall and chamber	156	26.0
	Hall and chamber (self-contained)	101	16.8
	Two bedroom self-contained	72	12.0
	Three bedroom self-contained	57	9.5
	Four bedroom self-contained	6	1.0
	Five bedroom self-contained	8	1.3
	Total	601	100.0

Source: Fieldwork 2022.

The study also discovered that 8.3% of the respondents had basic education, 5.8% of the participants had JHS education, 32.8% of the participants had SHS education, 22.8% of the respondents had an HND/diploma, 21.3% of the respondents had a bachelor’s degree, 2.7% of the respondents had a PhD, 1.5% of the respondents had no education, and 4.8% of the respondents had a master’s degree. These findings suggest that the majority of the respondents have had some education and can read and understand the information available to them.

Concerning the type of house respondents live in, it was found that 33.4% of the respondents live in a single room, 26% live in a hall and chamber, 16.8% live in a hall and chamber (self-contained), 12% live in a two-bedroom self-contained, 9.5% live in a three-bedroom self-contained, 1% live in a four-bedroom self-contained and 1.3% live in a five-bedroom self-contained.

4.3. General knowledge level of extension cord

The participants expressed their knowledge of ever using an extension cord and the amperage and wattage ratings of these cords. The data were analysed using binary logistic regression, and the results are summarised in Tables 5a and 5b. The chosen predictors’ model for the outcome of this analysis is ‘Gender, Age and Qualification’.

Table 5a. Usage of extension cord.

Binary logistic regression results
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test	Chi-square		df		Sig
	2.517		7		0.926
Ever used an extension cord	B	Sig	Exp(B)	95.0% C.I. for EXP(B)
				Lower	Upper
Gender (1)	−0.216	0.554	0.806	0.394	1.648
Age	−0.191	0.258	0.826	0.593	1.151
Constant	−2.275	0.000	0.103

^a Variable(s) entered on step 1: Gender and Age.

Table 5b. Knowledge of wattage ratings of an extension cord.

Binary logistic regression results
Test of model coefficient	Chi-square		df		Sig
	20.838		3		0.001
Knowledge of wattage ratings	B	Sig	Exp(B)	95.0% C.I. for EXP(B)
				Lower	Upper
Gender	0.722	0.001	2.058	1.476	2.869
Age	0.054	0.455	1.056	0.915	1.216
Qualification	−0.095	0.075	0.909	0.819	1.009
Constant	−0.908	0.013	0.403

^a Variable(s) entered on step 1: Gender, Age and Qualification.

The data were analysed using a binary logistic regression. ‘Gender and Age’ are the chosen predictors’ model for the analysis outcome. From the results provided by the Hosmer and Lemeshow tests, it can be concluded that the model fits the data [Chi-square = 2.517, df = 7, and p = 0.926 (>0.05)].

According to additional analysis, males (Exp (B) = 0.806) are more likely than females to use extension cords. At the 5% level, none of the identified predictor models is significant. According to the Nagelkerke R² model, only 9.0% of the variation in extension cord usage can be attributed to the specified variables. The model projected a 94.7% overall percentage prediction rate.

From the table above, the model was statistically significant (X²(3) = 20.838, p (0.001) < 0.05) from the test of model coefficients, according to the results (Chi-square). The chosen predictors account for 4.5% of the variation in awareness level, according to the Nagelkerke R². The chance of being aware of the wattage ratings was linked to gender, and from Table 5a, the model predicted that males use the extension cord more than females. The odds ratio (OR) for gender as a predictor is 0.722 (95% (CI): 1.476–2.869), p = 0.001 < (0.05), showing that gender is significant at the 5% level. The model predicted an overall percentage prediction rate of 58.9%. This demonstrates a lack of awareness in user ratings of extension cords.

4.4. Perception of selection before use, during use, and maintenance of extension cord

In this study, a mean of 3.2 is used to distinguish between a negative perception (disagreement) and a positive (agreement) perception (Castro & Martins, 2010; Ledimo, 2012). This implies that a mean score above 3.2 indicates a positive perception, while a mean score below 3.2 indicates a negative perception of the practices. The relative importance index (RII) with the various rankings was used to analyse the data.

4.4.1. Selection of extension cord before use (selection)

The questions in Table 6 were used to ascertain the respondents' level of knowledge regarding the purchase of an extension cord and their pre-usage practices. A five point Likert-scale was used to determine the safety choices before the selection of an extension cord for these respondents, where 1 meant strongly disagree and 5 meant strongly agree.

Table 6. Raking analysis of the selection of extension cord before usage.

Selection practices	1	2	3	4	5	MN	RII	RNK
I choose cords with three-prong plugs.	33	74	160	160	174	3.61	0.72	1
I inspect the extension cord for any damage before buying	53	73	104	216	155	3.58	0.72	2
I inspect my extension cord for physical damage before use.	56	87	120	205	133	3.45	0.69	3
I consider the length I will need to draw power from before buying the cord.	59	81	157	162	142	3.41	0.68	4
I am aware that there are extension cords for indoor use.	67	147	75	176	136	3.28	0.66	5
I am aware that there are extension cords for outdoor use	60	150	87	174	130	3.27	0.65	6
I read the information about the amount of power the extension cords can provide.	118	111	130	130	112	3.01	0.60	7
I check to see if the extension cord has been approved for use by a nationally recognized testing laboratory.	235	83	113	138	32	2.42	0.48	8

*MN = Mean; **RII = Relative Importance Index; ***RNK = Ranking.

Mean (1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Uncertain; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree).

Source: Field data, 2022.

From the table, it is evident that most respondents choose cords with three-prong plugs (M = 3.61). This statement was ranked 1st in the RII calculated values (RII = 0.72). The respondents also inspect the extension cord for any damage before buying (M = 3.58), which ranks in 2nd place based on the RII values. Therefore, the practice of also inspecting the extension cord for physical damage before use (M = 3.45) and with an RII = 0.69 ranking of 3rd place, reflects the respondents’ consciousness of the need to keep safety in mind during the processes leading to the use of the extension cord. From the analysis in Table 6, an average number of respondents are aware that there are extension cords for both outdoor (M = 3.27) and indoor (M = 3.28). Also, a significant number of respondents (M = 3.41) do consider the length needed to draw power before buying the cord. However, a significant number of respondents do not read the information about the amount of power the extension cords can provide, or more seriously, check to see if the extension cord has been approved for use by a nationally recognized testing laboratory, with scores of (M = 3.01, RII = 0.60) and (M = 2.42, RII = 0.48) ranking 7th and 8th, respectively. This represents a negative perception of the selection practices. This means that they might not even be aware if they are using substandard cords and the serious implications it has for the user, the cord, appliances, and the built environment in general.

4.4.2. Usage of extension cord (during use)

The extent to which respondents make certain safety choices while using an extension cord was investigated in order to assess the level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords. A five point Likert-scale was used to determine the safety choices before the selection of an extension cord for these respondents, where 1 meant strongly disagree and 5 meant strongly agree.

Table 7 displays the extension cord usage practices in the sample. From the table, it appears that most respondents plug multiple appliances into their extension cords (M = 3.85; RII = 0.77), this is surely a recipe for disaster. However, the majority of respondents (M = 3.55; RII = 0.71) indicated that they uncoil all the cords before use, which is a positive safety practice, while a majority of respondents (M = 2.97; RII = 2.97) disagreed with the statement of passing their extension cords under their carpets and furniture. Also, a significant number of respondents disagreed with the statement ‘storing their extension cords outside in the open and using the extension cord when it is wet,’ scoring (M = 2.13 and M = 1.9) respectively, and ranking 16th and 17th. These final usage practice scores reflect a negative perception. This means that the respondents are only marginally aware of the precautions that must be followed while using an extension cord, as seen by the low means recorded for the negative perceptions of these practices shown in the table.

Table 7. Ranking analysis of safety measures adopted during the use of extension cords.

Usage practices	1	2	3	4	5	MN	RII	RNK
I plug multiple appliances into my extension cord.	26	62	90	221	202	3.85	0.77	1
I uncoil all the cords before use.	28	91	154	177	151	3.55	0.71	2
I unplug the extension cord when not in use.	83	101	111	199	107	3.24	0.65	3
I keep sagging in flexible extension cords to prevent tension on electrical terminals.	44	92	234	138	93	3.24	0.65	4
I pass extension cords under carpets and furniture.	128	114	104	156	99	2.97	0.59	5
I plug my extension cord into another to get more length.	106	153	143	96	103	2.90	0.58	6
I use an extension cord marked for indoor use indoors and outdoors use for outdoors.	106	97	212	154	32	2.85	0.57	7
I leave the extension cord in the socket even if it is not in use.	130	149	98	132	92	2.85	0.57	8
I drag extension cords on the floor when I am moving them from one place to another.	149	144	143	133	32	2.59	0.52	9
I overload cords with more than the proper electrical load.	165	114	198	101	23	2.51	0.50	10
I force plugs into the extension cords outlets.	200	125	128	103	45	2.45	0.49	11
I attach extension cords to the walls and floors using nails and staples.	215	152	75	91	68	2.41	0.48	12
I continue to use the extension cord even if it feels hot when I touch it.	192	146	162	59	42	2.36	0.47	13
I pull the cord the plug when removing the extension cord.	232	118	138	59	54	2.31	0.46	14
I pass extension cords through doorways, windows and floors.	192	185	99	96	29	2.31	0.46	14
I store my extension cords outside in the open.	204	192	142	47	16	2.13	0.43	16
I use the extension cord when it is wet.	349	82	73	59	38	1.93	0.39	17

*MN = Mean; **RII = Relative Importance Index; ***RNK = Ranking.

Mean (1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Uncertain; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree).

Source: Field data, 2022.

4.4.3. Maintenance of extension cord (after usage)

The respondents were allowed to express the degree to which the following maintenance practices were observed after using the extension cord. Table 8 illustrates the maintenance of extension cord practices among the respondents.

Table 8. Ranking analysis of maintenance practices of extension cord.

Maintenance practices	1	2	3	4	5	MN	RII	RNK
I keep extension cords dry and free from water.	9	8	25	147	412	4.57	0.91	1
I keep extension cords away from children and animals.	12	18	60	174	337	4.34	0.87	2
I store extension cords indoors after use.	16	28	50	240	267	4.19	0.84	3
I throw away any cord which is damaged.	28	53	70	181	269	4.01	0.80	4
I regularly check and inspect my extension cord to see if it is in good working order	52	84	102	154	209	3.64	0.73	5
I regularly check and inspect my extension cord to see if it is in good working order	55	83	102	163	198	3.61	0.72	6
I unplug extension cords when they are not in use.	63	65	120	189	164	3.54	0.71	7

*MN = Mean; **RII = Relative Importance Index; ***RNK = Ranking.

Mean (1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Uncertain; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree).

Source: Field data, 2022.

It is realised that most respondents kept extension cords dry and free from water (M = 4.57; RII = 0.91), ranking 1st. This practice ensures that the cords are not exposed to wetness, which could hurt them physically. Also, the majority of the respondents (M = 4.34; RII = 0.87) kept extension cords away from children and animals. This is a good safety practice to ensure that members of the household do not damage them. A substantial number (M = 4.19; RII = 0.84) stores extension cords indoors after use and throws away any cord that is damaged (M = 4.01; RII = 0.80). In terms of the evaluation, as shown in Table 8, the respondents’ mean values were very high, indicating that they had positive perceptions and a rudimentary understanding of maintaining their extension cord after use.

4.4.4. Overall level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords

This section presents the findings on the overall level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords. The study hypothesised that the level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords is extremely high. Taking this into consideration, the test value for the analysis was 5. Therefore, this was the population mean since the study imagined that the level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords is extremely high, and 5 represents the extremely positive responses given by the respondents. The analysis was done as a two-tailed test with alpha ($\alpha$) = 0.05.

Let;

$H_0$ = The level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords is extremely low.

$H_1$ = The level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords is extremely high.

Critical region = 1.9852; accept the null hypothesis if the T-statistic is less than 1.9852 and reject if it is greater than 1.9852.

Table 9 presents the results of the one-sample T-test in verifying the hypothesis on the level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords. T-statistics and critical values were estimated. The study tests the null hypothesis (H₀). The level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords is extremely low. The study will reject the null hypothesis (H₀) if the T-statistics is greater than the critical value and will fail to reject the null hypothesis (H₀) if the T-statistics is less than the critical value. The null hypothesis is rejected when: the t-value obtained is equal to or greater than 1.9852. Where 1.9852 is the critical value from the t-distribution and is found using the T-distribution critical value table. As shown in Table 9, the T-statistics, for the variable is less than the critical value; the study, therefore, fails to reject the null hypothesis and concludes that the level of awareness of safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords is low, and it can be inferred that the majority of respondents agree on the poor safety measures they practise at home due to the manner in which they utilise their extension cord and that could result in a fire outbreak.

Table 9. One-Sample test results for safety measures adopted in the use of extension cords.

Safety practices to prevent fire
I am convinced that based on my maintenance culture, I am exposed to fire outbreak in the use of the extension cord. Overall, how would you rate your exposure to the risk of fire outbreak in the use of the extension cord? I am convinced that based on how I use the extension cord, I am exposed to fire outbreak. I am convinced that based on my initial information on the extension cord before buying, I am exposed to fire outbreak.
Level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords	Test Value = 5
	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
					Lower	Upper
	−63.476	600	0.001	−1.87539	−1.9334	−1.8174

4.4.5. Overview of extension cord usage in Ho Municipality

Safety management aims to prevent accidents and incidents by proactively mitigating safety hazards. Households may manage their safety operations in a more disciplined, integrated, and focused manner by using safety management practices to improve home security (Arch & Thurston, 2012). Reliable safety management data is an all-encompassing resource for a full, critical, and instructional examination of safety management solutions in all home safety management operations. However, an assessment of the level of understanding of safety procedures has yet to be systematically explored as an agenda for extension cord usage in homes, institutions, and even organisations thought to be major energy consumers with frequent fire breakouts.

During data collection, the researchers asked 50 respondents for permission to explore how extension cords are used in their homes. The examination discovered that 43 extension cables were overloaded in the 50 residences surveyed, as shown in Figure 3. If a refrigerator, heating iron, television, and microwave are all hooked into a 13-Amp extension cord at the same time, the extension cable will be considered overloaded (Gidisu, 2017). Again, 39 households used a three-prong extension cord. This is a positive safety behaviour since it reduces the danger of shock and fire among residents linked with the usage of non-three-prong plugs, even though others had their earth prongs broken and others used two-prong plugs. In general, all respondents assessed were unaware of extension cord ratings and testing laboratories, while the majority of these cords were not from any testing laboratory or endorsed by the Ghana Standard Board, while other extension cords were homemade.

Figure 3. Overview of extension cord usage in Ho Municipality.

(a) Three-prong plug; (b) Overloaded extension cord; (c) Long extension cord; (d) Homemade extension cord.

During an interview and conversation with some of the participants, they disclosed the following reasons for their diverse extension cord usage practices:

The electrical extension cable, which is found in almost every home, is routinely used to power several electrical devices from a single power source. Furthermore, the expanded connection length of the extension cable allows power to be delivered to devices positioned a distance from the source. Because of the extension cord’s accessible number of outlets, these qualities make our everyday demands for powering multiple electronic devices placed at large distances from a single power source far more manageable. We like three-prong plugs since they are easier to insert into a receptacle. Finally, we have no idea about the power and current ratings of the extension cord. Our key task is to connect multiple gadgets to the cord for convenience. We prefer long-cable extensions to connect electrical appliances and devices to distant power outlets. Lastly, we prefer homemade extension cords due to the inferior materials used in designing the imported ones. The homemade cord lasts longer and is very durable.

5. Discussion

The research survey set out to evaluate the safety measures and practices adopted by residents of Ho in the Ho Municipality of Ghana in the use of extension cords in their homes and also to find out which variables, i.e. selection of extension cords before use, usage (during use), and maintenance (after use), have the highest possibility of causing a fire in the built environment. The participants were asked to assess the level of their safety procedures with the extension cord as a potential fire hazard.

According to the study’s findings, the majority of respondents (95%) have used an extension cord, according to the logit analysis results. Every home uses an extension cable to power several electrical gadgets from a single power source. As a result, extension cables are a valuable asset in every home. They are quite useful when you need to power any electrical gadgets away from any power source in your home. It may be impossible to maintain a power connection in every room of the house. Indeed, consideration for the length of the cord is important because, according to Thiele, the wire size, length of the cord, resistance of the wire, and the voltage drop due to the distance can cause damage to electrical appliances plugged into the extension cords and the extension cord itself (Thiele, 2022). The respondents were also aware of the power ratings required for all extension cords, yet further analysis revealed a low rating for them.

With regards to the results obtained from the analysis of the attitudes towards extension cord usage as they acquire them for the first time before use, it was revealed that most of the respondents choose cords with three-prong plugs. This is a positive safety behaviour as it leads to a reduction in the risk of shock and fire among residents associated with the use of non-three-prong plugs because 12,000 people were treated for electrical shocks and burns, 2,500 of them from extension cords. Each year, hospital emergency rooms treat 4,000 extension cable-related injuries (McLeod, 2016). According to the information acquired during the field study, the majority of respondents attributed their preference for the three-prong plug to its ease of use when putting it into a wall socket. This demonstrates that respondents have a limited understanding of the purpose of the third plug. Three-prong outlets have a grounding wire as a third wire flowing from them. Excess current and voltage have somewhere to go in the case of a surge that isn’t your body or your equipment. As a result, they are far safer for you and everything else plugged in during the surge (Sylvester Electric, 2020). It’s worth noting that the respondents gave the lowest scores to the extremely essential elements ‘I read the information regarding the amount of power the extension cords can give’ and ‘I check to see if the extension cord has been approved for use by a nationally known testing laboratory.’ According to the study, the majority of extension cords in the nation do not have a standard label on them from an authorised body that oversees the flow of goods into the country, therefore, people often overlook these two critical elements when purchasing an extension cable. The gauge of the wire determines the amperage and wattage ratings of extension cords. Each extension cord should have a tag with its amperage rating, but this label isn’t always present or visible (Thiele, 2022). Both OSHA and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) prohibit the use of uncertified extension cables. Endorsed electrical extension cables are equally acceptable in the workplace as temporary wiring for no more than 90 days (Fast Facts, 2010). Beware of small devices; they frequently fail to meet security requirements and are illegally labelled. Extension cords must meet standards for wire size, strain relief, polarisation, continuity, outlet covers, and jacketing (Extension Cords Business Guidance | CPSC.gov, 2022).

During the use of the extension cord, it was discovered that respondents plug multiple appliances into the extension cord, which is a critically dangerous preference. In research conducted by (Gidisu, 2017) about using pedagogical training to reduce domestic electrical hazards in Tamale, Northern Region of Ghana, field visits by the researcher to 50 homes in Tamale Metropolis to investigate how extension cords are used revealed that 46 extension cords were overloaded out of the 50 homes visited. Every extension cable has a wattage restriction that can be used to power appliances. The load capacity of an extension cord is determined not only by the thickness (in gauge) of the copper wire that makes up the cord but also by the length of the cable. These criteria should be kept in mind when looking for the best cable for your needs (Oxel, 2017). It’s not commonplace to plug in many appliances at once using an extension cable. The equivalent load tends to exceed the extension cord’s threshold load. As a result, the cable may become damaged due to overheating. Overheating can also result in intense flames in rare instances, burning of plug pins and the receptacles of the extension cord (Parise et al., 2019) as displayed in Figure 4. Therefore, you must avoid making the common mistake of overloading the extension cable at all costs. According to CPSC estimates, approximately 4,600 residential home fires are caused by extension cords each year, killing 70 people and injuring 230 others. Aside from fires, extension cords cause 2,200 shock-related injuries each year (Limit Extension Cords To Reduce Risk Of Fire | CPSC.gov, n.d). This is mainly a result of their misuse.

Figure 4. Effect of overloading the extension cord.

All of the other choices were rated as good, which shows that respondents know how to use an extension cord safely. This is shown by the high means given for each choice. An average number of respondents are aware that there are extension cords for both outdoor and indoor use. This means that any extension cord that can assist the respondent in getting their system working, regardless of the implications of the type of extension cord or where it is to be used, is acceptable, keeping in mind that using an indoor extension cord for outdoor use or vice versa can be extremely dangerous due to overheating, which can result in a fire. Brock in 2018 intimated that in selecting an extension cord, there are several factors to be considered, including the environment in which it is going to be used, postulating that, in most cases, indoor cords are used for small electrical devices while outdoor ones are for high voltage equipment. Again, in the design of the cords, the outdoor ones are specially insulated to protect against moisture, temperature changes, and sometimes chemicals and oils (Brock, 2021).

In terms of the evaluation, as shown in Table 8, the average scores of the respondents’ were rather high, indicating a rudimentary understanding of maintaining the extension cord. The respondents preferred to keep the extension cords dry and clear of water since exposing the cord to water can easily result in electrocution or a fire. The remaining mean values for each element were rated very high due to an understanding of the potential risks and hazards associated with improper use and maintenance of extension cables, which ultimately leads to their prolonged lifespan. Not only can good cord maintenance save money, but it also minimises the risk of fire, unintentional electrocution, and other avoidable incidents. Always check cables for damage before using them, and if in doubt, pull them out! By making tiny changes to your daily routine, you may build a safer home by implementing these and other best practices.

Finally, the majority of respondents agree on the risk faced at home due to the manner in which the extension cord is being utilised, which could result in a fire outbreak. According to the data provided throughout the study, most respondents had little practical understanding of how to use an extension cable. When purchasing this item, people mostly consider convenience above safety. With the help of the questionnaire, they learned about all the different ways to use extension cords. In their submissions, these technical questions revealed their low-level thinking and comprehension. The sole high-level instruction received was for the maintenance of the extension cord, which had high mean values throughout the questionnaire since these cords are used regularly and expected to last a long time, so excellent maintenance would suffice. The examination also uncovered the use of homemade extension cables. According to the answers, most extension cords imported into the country are manufactured with inferior materials and do not last as long as self-made ones. This is very true, but it may also be quite harmful. Any testing facility cannot guarantee the efficiency of a homemade extension cord. The total ratings are also unknown, which might be dangerous when used. An authorised multi-plug extension cable has an on/off switch, a built-in fuse, and has been tested by the Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM) (Fire Prevention Guidelines & Practice, 2018).

5.1. Practical implications and safety tips

Due to the proliferation of electrical products on the market, it is prudent to buy extension cords that have been approved by the authorised regulatory body. When more power than the cord’s capacity passes through the wires, it overheats and melts the insulation, causing short circuits and fire outbreaks. The maximum current that wires and other electrical components can safely carry is rated. Excess currents can overheat electrical components. Although breakers and fuses are intended to disconnect circuits during overloads, fires can occur if they fail to operate due to improper sizing or mechanical defects. Even if the breakers and fuses are in good working order, fires can still occur if extension cords are overloaded. This is because the current rating of cords frequently falls far below the loads required to activate breakers and fuses (Ricketts, 2020). To ensure that households are not using substandard cords, which lead to fire outbreaks, the users need to be educated on the need to read the instructions and wattage capacities on the extension cords before selecting them. In Ghana, the Energy Commission, in collaboration with the Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS), is tasked with this duty, and all support is needed to ensure that the message gets down to everybody. Also, in selecting an extension cord, it is essential to determine the length that is required to avoid buying a short one for a long draw of power. To reduce the risk of electric shock and cord damage, it is essential to look for three-prong plugs rather than two-prong ones.

Children and animals in the built environment have a high likelihood of seeing cords as playthings and causing damage to them. It is therefore prudent to store the cords securely away from them. Extension cords are susceptible to damage from the elements of the weather, so it is essential to keep them away from the rigours of the weather and water. Extension cords are very helpful in ensuring that we deliver the required power to where it is needed and are only meant to be temporary solutions. If you rely heavily on extension cords, you may need to add more socket circuits. Extension cords are among the most dangerous electrical appliances, according to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (Guidance on proper use of extension cords & power strips & surge protectors, 2015). Even though extension cords are very useful in the built environment, if used without proper caution, they are likely to become a fire hazard, which poses grave danger and risk to human safety (Kodur et al., 2019). However, it is reckoned that if the right extension cord is selected for the right electrical appliance, the risk of fire, electrical shock, and injury that come with improper use can be greatly reduced. Because electrical dangers pose a considerable risk of death and injury to humans, safety must be prioritised as the first step in any environmental setting (Saba et al., 2014). The following summarised safety tips must be adhered to when using an extension cord;

• Do not purchase any extension cords. Only buy extension cords that have been authorised by an independent testing laboratory, such as the Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL) or the Ghana Standard Authority, and make sure the label is stamped. The testing laboratory issues an endorsement or posting of the extension cord, proving that it fulfils relevant requirements (McLeod, 2016).

• Never use an extension cable to power a refrigerator, water heater, rice cooker, microwave oven, or toaster; these are machines that draw more electricity than the cord can handle. Overheating can occur at the plug, the socket, or over the entire length of the cable, resulting in a fire.

• Do not connect several appliances to the same extension cable. Overloading the electrical cords or circuits might result in an electrical fire due to the additional electrical flow passing through the outlet that is greater than what it was designed to handle. While this happens, the wiring or the outlet will overheat and could create an electrical fire. Also, remember to unplug the extension cable when not in use.

• While the device is in operation, avoid coiling the cord or covering any part of an extension cord with mats or other things. Coiling and wrapping the extension cable prevents heat from escaping and causing a fire.

• Extension cords must be secured from damage and should not be routed through doorways, beds, or windows where the doors or windows might close and sever the cord.

• One of the simplest ways to secure an extension cord is to use staples or nails to attach it to a surface. However, doing so may not only degrade the electrical appliance’s operation but also endanger the users. The sharpness of the metal staples and nails destroys the insulating rubber covering layer of the cord, causing electric current leakage. Such stray currents might result in severe electric shocks. As a result, you should avoid this common blunder.

• A good practice is to pull the plug, not the cord when removing it and desist from forcing plugs into sockets, Due to wear and tear, it is essential to regularly check and inspect the extension cord for any physical damage. In the event of a discovery of a damaged cord, it is best to throw it away and buy a new one.

6. Conclusion

The study examined the level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords and to what extent participants adhered to them to reduce the incidence of extension cord-related fires in their various homes. It can be confirmed by the findings that the level of awareness of safety measures to be adopted in the use of extension cords is low, as well as the extent to which users adhere to them to reduce the incidence of extension cord-related fire incidents in their various homes.

Electricity users must be educated on safety precautions, as knowledge is the seed of tomorrow’s change. To avoid all types of electrical accidents in the home, all hands must be on deck to ensure that extension cord users have adequate awareness of electrical hazards and safety education before purchasing one. Extension cords should only be used for short periods and when necessary. They are not a substitute for the installation of outlets and proper wiring where necessary. The guidelines listed above as ‘safety tips’ should be followed by all users when purchasing, using, and after using extension cords to ensure that they do not violate good safety practices or fire codes.

6.1. Recommendations

Based on the goals of the research, our results show how important it is to take steps to improve extension cord safety management procedures in Ho and all over Ghana to protect people’s health and property. In light of this, the researchers suggest users of the extension cord should be made more aware of the dangers that are posed by using electricity by the government, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), electrical power providers, academic institutions, and manufacturers of electrical products through the use of televisions, radios, posters, public lectures, and television advertisements. These users should be fully informed of the safety procedures that will aid in safeguarding the lives and property of other users of electrical extension cords through the use of safety posters, public lectures, and other forms of communication.

Finally, the Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) must continue to promote standards in public health, safety, and welfare for consumers of various goods and services produced in Ghana and imported, whether for local consumption or export, that are safe, reliable, and of good quality, and meet the International Standards Organization (ISO) specifications. The Ghanaian government should equip the customs division to combat the smuggling of products into the nation via border crossings and unauthorised routes.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the support of the field assistants who gathered data and the study participants who graciously answered our questions. We would also like to thank the heads of families who agreed to be interviewed and allowed inspections to be conducted for the study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Michael W. Apprey

Michael Wellington Apprey is currently a Senior Lab Instructor at the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ho Technical University (HTU) Ghana. He holds BEng. in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Accra Institutes of Technology since 2018. His research interests are Health and Safety, Control Automation, Power Systems, Electronics and Communications, Power Line Communications and Telecommunications.