Contested membership: experimental evidence on the treatment of return migrants to mainland China during the COVID-19 pandemic

References

• Abascal, Maria, Kinga Makovi, and Yao Xu. 2023. “Politics, Not Vulnerability: Republicans Discriminated Against Chinese-Born Americans Throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 8 (1): 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2022.28.
   Google Scholar
• Baldassarri, Delia, and Maria Abascal. 2017. “Field Experiments Across the Social Sciences.” Annual Review of Sociology 43 (1): 41–73. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112445.
   Google Scholar
• Baldassarri, Delia, and Guy Grossman. 2013. “The Effect of Group Attachment and Social Position on Prosocial Behavior: Evidence from Lab-in-the-Field Experiments.” PLoS One 8: e58750. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bardsley, Nicholas. 2008. “Dictator Game Giving: Altruism or Artefact?” Experimental Economics 11 (2): 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-007-9172-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benz, Matthias, and Stephan Meier. 2008. “Do People Behave in Experiments as in the Field? —Evidence from Donations.” Experimental Economics 11 (3): 268–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-007-9192-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bieber, Florian. 2022. “Global Nationalism in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Nationalities Papers 50 (1): 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2020.35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binah-Pollak, Avital, and Shiran Yuan. 2022. “Negotiating Identity by Transnational Chinese Students During COVID-19.” China Information 36 (2): 180–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X211065013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, Bart. 2016. “Nationalism in Settled Times.” Annual Review of Sociology 42 (1): 427–449. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074412.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, Bart. 2017. “Ethno-nationalist Populism and the Mobilization of Collective Resentment.” The British Journal of Sociology 68: S181–S213. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, Bart, and Yueran Zhang. 2023. “Populism as Dog-Whistle Politics: Anti-Elite Discourse and Sentiments Toward out-Groups.” Social Forces 102 (1): 180–201. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soac147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, Rogers. 1992. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, Rogers. 2010. “Migration, Membership, and the Modern Nation-State: Internal and External Dimensions of the Politics of Belonging.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 41 (1): 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1162/jinh.2010.41.1.61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brubaker, Rogers. 2020. “Populism and Nationalism.” Nations and Nationalism 26 (1): 44–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12522.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brubaker, Rogers, Margit Feischmidt, Jon Fox, and Liana Grancea. 2006. “Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town.” In Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chen-Weiss, Jessica. 2019. “How Hawkish is the Chinese Public? Another Look at “Rising Nationalism” and Chinese Foreign Policy.” Journal of Contemporary China 28 (119): 679–695. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2019.1580427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du, Zaichao, Yuting Sun, Guochang Zhao, and David Zweig. 2021. “Do Overseas Returnees Excel in the Chinese Labour Market?” The China Quarterly 247: 875–897. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741021000023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elias, Amanuel, Jehonathan Ben, Fethi Mansouri, and Yin Paradies. 2021. “Racism and Nationalism During and Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 44 (5): 783–793. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1851382.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feliciano, Cynthia. 2020. “Immigrant Selectivity Effects on Health, Labor Market, and Educational Outcomes.” Annual Review of Sociology 46 (1): 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054639.
   Google Scholar
• Flores, René D., and Ariel Azar. 2023. “Who Are the “Immigrants”?: How Whites’ Diverse Perceptions of Immigrants Shape Their Attitudes.” Social Forces 101 (4): 2117–2146. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soac113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen, Axel, and Sonja Pointner. 2013. “The External Validity of Giving in the Dictator Game” Experimental Economics 16 (2): 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-012-9337-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gereke, Johanna, Max Schaub, and Delia Baldassarri. 2022. “Immigration, Integration and Cooperation: Experimental Evidence from a Public Goods Game in Italy.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48 (15): 3761–3788. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2021.1949269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaeser, Edward L, David I. Laibson, Jose A. Scheinkman, and Christine L. Soutter. 2000. “Measuring Trust” Quarterly Journal of Economics 115 (3): 811–846. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300554926.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman, Merle, and Elizabeth J. Perry. 2002. Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China (Vol. 13). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guo, Zhonghua. 2021. “Introduction: Navigating Chinese Citizenship.” In The Routledge Handbook of Chinese Citizenship, 1–14. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hainmueller, Jens, Daniel J. Hopkins, and Teppei Yamamoto. 2014. “Causal Inference in Conjoint Analysis: Understanding Multidimensional Choices via Stated Preference Experiments.” Political Analysis 22 (1): 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hainmuller, Jens, and Michael J. Hiscox. 2010. “Attitudes Toward Highly Skilled and Low- Skilled Immigration: Evidence from a Survey Experiment.” American Political Science Review 104 (1): 61–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055409990372.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanser, Amy, and Jialin Camille Li. 2015. “Opting Out? Gated Consumption, Infant Formula and China’s Affluent Urban Consumers.” The China Journal 74: 110–128. https://doi.org/10.1086/681662.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, Elaine Lynn-Ee. 2016. “Incongruent Migration Categorisations and Competing Citizenship Claims‘: Return’and Hypermigration in Transnational Migration Circuits.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42 (14): 2379–2394. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1205802.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, Elaine Lynn-ee. 2019. Citizens in Motion: Emigration, Immigration, and Re-Migration Across China’s Borders. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hu, Yang, Cora Lingling Xu, and Mengwei Tu. 2022. “Family-mediated Migration Infrastructure: Chinese International Students and Parents Navigating (Im)Mobilities During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Chinese Sociological Review 54 (1): 62–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2020.1838271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imai, Kosuke, Luke Keele, and Dustin Tingley. 2010. “A General Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological Methods 15: 309–334. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jérolon, Allan, Laura Baglietto, Etienne Birmelé, Flora Alarcon, and Vittorio Perduca. 2021. “Causal Mediation Analysis in Presence of Multiple Mediators Uncausally Related.” The International Journal of Biostatistics 17 (2): 191–221. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijb-2019-0088.
   Google Scholar
• Jia, Hepeng, and Xi Luo. 2023. “I Wear a Mask for My Country: Conspiracy Theories, Nationalism, and Intention to Adopt Covid-19 Prevention Behaviors at the Later Stage of Pandemic Control in China.” Health Communication 38 (3): 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1958982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanbur, Ravi, Yue Wang, and Xiaobo Zhang. 2021. “The Great Chinese Inequality Turnaround.” Journal of Comparative Economics 49 (2): 467–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2020.10.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Jaeeun. 2016. Contested Embrace: Transborder Membership Politics in Twentieth-Century Korea. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kraut, Alan M. 1994. Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the ‘Immigrant Menace’. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, Ching Kwan. 2017. The Specter of Global China: Politics, Labor, and Foreign Investment in Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Legewie, Joscha. 2013. “Terrorist Events and Attitudes Toward Immigrants: A Natural Experiment.” American Journal of Sociology 118 (5): 1199–1245. https://doi.org/10.1086/669605.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Gordon C. 2021. “From Parvenu to “Highbrow” Tastes: The Rise of Cultural Capital in China’s Intergenerational Elites.” The British Journal of Sociology 72 (3): 514–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Jiacheng. 2020. “From Social Drama to Political Performance: China’s Multi-Front com- bat with the Covid-19 Epidemic.” Critical Asian Studies 54: 473–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2020.1803094.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, Jiaqi M. 2021. “Citizenship on the Move: The Deprivation and Restoration of Emigrants’ Hukou in China.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47 (3): 557–574. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1788381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Jiaqi M. 2022. “When Diaspora Politics Meet Global Ambitions: Diaspora Institutions Amid China’s Geopolitical Transformations.” International Migration Review 56 (4): 1255–1279. https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183211072824.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Jiaqi M., and Rui Jie Peng. 2023. “Mobility Repertoires: How Chinese Overseas Students Overcame Pandemic-Induced Immobility.” International Migration Review 0: 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183231170835.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, Hong, and Els van Dongen. 2016. “China’s Diaspora Policies as a new Mode of Transnational Governance.” Journal of Contemporary China 25 (102): 805–821. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2016.1184894.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, Lucia, Wei Li, and Yining Tan. 2023. “Students on the Move? Intellectual Migration and International Student Mobility.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (18): 4621–4640. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2023.2270331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, Yingyi. 2020. Ambitious and Anxious: How Chinese College Students Succeed and Struggle in American Higher Education. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ma, Haijing, and Claude Miller. 2021. “Trapped in a Double Bind: Chinese Overseas Student Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Health Communication 36 (13): 1598–1605. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1775439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makovi, Kinga, and Christopher Winship. 2021. “Advances in Mediation Analysis.” In Research Handbook on Analytical Sociology. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Markel, Howard. 1999. Quarantine: East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miao, Ying. 2020. “Can China be Populist? Grassroot Populist Narratives in the Chinese Cyberspace.” Contemporary Politics 26 (3): 268–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2020.1727398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miao, Lu, Jinlian Zheng, Jason Allan Jean, and Yixi Lu. 2022. “China’s International Talent Policy (ITP): The Changes and Driving Forces, 1978-2020.” Journal of Contemporary China 31 (136): 644–661. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2021.1985843.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, Sung-Choon. 2020. Korean International Students and the Making of Racialized Transnational Elites. London: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Paul, Anju Mary. 2021. Asian Scientists on the Move: Changing Science in a Changing Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Perry, Elizabeth. 2021. “Epilogue: China’s (R)evolutionary Governance and the COVID-19 Crisis.” In Evolutionary Governance in China: State-Society Relations Under Authoritarianism, edited by Szu-Chien Hsu, Kelle S. Tsai, and Chun-Chun Chang. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ren, Na, and Hong Liu. 2019. “Domesticating‘Transnational Cultural Capital’: The Chinese State and Diasporic Technopreneur Returnees.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45 (13): 2308–2327. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1534583.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rithmire, Meg, and Courtney Han. 2020. “China’s Management of COVID-19 (A): People’s War or Chernobyl Moment.”.
   Google Scholar
• Rogaski, Ruth. 2004. Hygenic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty Port China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, Charles E. 1989. “What is an Epidemic? AIDS in Historical Perspective.” Daedalus 118: 1–17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20025233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxenian, AnnaLee. 2005. “From Brain Drain to Brain Circulation: Transnational Communities and Regional Upgrading in India and China.” Studies in Comparative International Development 40 (2): 35–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seol, Dong-Hoon, and John D Skrentny. 2009. “Ethnic Return Migration and Hierarchical Nationhood: Korean Chinese Foreign Workers in South Korea.” Ethnicities 9 (2): 147–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796808099901.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, David A., and Kai Quek. 2022. “Public Attitudes Toward Internal and Foreign Migration: Evidence from China.” Public Opinion Quarterly 86 (1): 82–106. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfab065.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su, Phi Hong. 2022. The Border Within: Vietnamese Migrants Transforming Ethnic Nationalism in Berlin. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tai, Qiuqing, and Rory Truex. 2015. “Public Opinion Towards Return Migration: A Survey Experiment of Chinese Netizens.” The China Quarterly 223: 770–786. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741015000879.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teo, Sin Yih. 2011. “‘The Moon Back Home is Brighter’?: Return Migration and the Cultural Politics of Belonging.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37 (5): 805–820. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2011.559720.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tu, Siqi. 2021. “Destination Diploma: How Chinese Upper-Middle-Class Families “Outsource” Secondary Education to The United States.” Ph.D. thesis, The City University of New York.
   Google Scholar
• VanderWeele, Tyler, and Stijn Vansteelandt. 2014. “Mediation Analysis with Multiple Mediators.” Epidemiologic Methods 2: 95–115.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang, Leslie K. 2016. “The Benefits of in-Betweenness: Return Migration of Second- Genera- Tion Chinese American Professionals to China.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42 (12): 1941–1958. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1139447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Zhenyu, and Yuzhou Tao. 2021. “Many Nationalisms, one Disaster: Categories, Attitudes and Evolution of Chinese Nationalism on Social Media During the COVID-19 pan- Demic.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 26 (3): 525–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-021-09728-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimmer, Andreas. 2017. “Power and Pride National Identity and Ethnopolitical Inequality Around the World.” World Politics 69 (4): 605–639. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887117000120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, Xiaogang. 2009. “Income Inequality and Distributive Justice: A Comparative Analysis of Mainland China and Hong Kong.” The China Quarterly 200: 1033–1052. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741009990610.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Li, Filip Novokmet, and Branko Milanovic. 2021. “From Workers to Capitalists in Less Than two Generations: A Study of Chinese Urban top Group Transformation Between 1988 and 2013.” The British Journal of Sociology 72 (3): 478–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, Jing. 2021. “Caught in the Middle? Chinese International Students’ Self-Formation Amid Politics and Pandemic.” International Journal of Chinese Education 10: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/22125868211058911.
   Google Scholar
• Zang, Xiaowei. 2008. “Market Transition, Wealth, an Status Claims.” In The New Rich in China, edited by David S.G. Goodman. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, Yingchan. 2019. “Making the Transnational Move: Deliberation, Negotiation, and Disjunctures among Overseas Chinese Returnees in China.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45 (3): 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1459182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Chenchen. 2020. “Right-wing Populism with Chinese Characteristics? Identity, Otherness and Global Imaginaries in Debating World Politics Online.” European Journal of International Relations 26 (1): 88–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066119850253.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Li. 2021. The Origins of COVID-19: China and Global Capitalism. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, Chenchen. 2022. “Contested Disaster Nationalism in the Digital age: Emotional Registers and Geopolitical Imaginaries in COVID-19 Narratives on Chinese Social Media.” Review of International Studies 48: 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210522000018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Yu, and Abigail E. Coplin. 2022. “Innovation in a Science-Based Sector: The Institutional Evolution Behind China’s Emerging Biopharmaceutical Innovation Boom.” The China Review 22: 39–76. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/849118.
   Google Scholar