Preparing for, coping with and bouncing back after shocks. A nuanced resilience assessment for smallholder farms and farmers in Northern Ghana

References

• Abass, K., Adanu, S. K., & Agyemang, S. (2018). Peri-urbanisation and loss of arable land in Kumasi Metropolis in three decades: Evidence from remote sensing image analysis. Land Use Policy, 72, 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2018.01.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acosta, A., Nicolli, F., & Karfakis, P. (2021). Coping with climate shocks: The complex role of livestock portfolios. World Development, 146, 105546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105546
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adhikari, P., Araya, H., Aruna, G., Balamatti, A., Banerjee, S., Baskaran, P., Barah, B. C., Behera, D., Berhe, T., Boruah, P., Dhar, S., Edwards, S., Fulford, M., Gujja, B., Ibrahim, H., Kabir, H., Kassam, A., Khadka, R. B., Koma, Y. S., … Verma, A. (2018). System of crop intensification for more productive, resource-conserving, climate-resilient, and sustainable agriculture: Experience with diverse crops in varying agroecologies. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 16(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1402504
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adom, A. Y. (2015). Analysis of the role of foreign donour aid in Ghana’s economic development and poverty alleviation (PhD thesis). University of South Africa. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0625.
   Google Scholar
• Akponikpè, P. B. I., Minet, J., Gérard, B., Defourny, P., & Bielders, C. L. (2011). Spatial fields’ dispersion as a farmer strategy to reduce agro-climatic risk at the household level in pearl millet-based systems in the Sahel: A modeling perspective. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 151(2), 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2010.10.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alary, V., Messad, S., Aboul-Naga, A., Osman, M. A., Daoud, I., Bonnet, P., Juanes, X., & Tourrand, J. F. (2014). Livelihood strategies and the role of livestock in the processes of adaptation to drought in the Coastal Zone of Western Desert (Egypt). Agricultural Systems, 128, 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.03.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amankwah, K., Klerkx, L., Oosting, S. J., Sakyi-Dawson, O., Van Der Zijpp, A. J., & Millar, D. (2012). Diagnosing constraints to market participation of small ruminant producers in northern Ghana: An innovation systems analysis. NJAS: Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 60–63(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2012.06.002
   Google Scholar
• Aniah, P., Kaunza-Nu-Dem, M. K., & Ayembilla, J. A. (2019). Smallholder farmers’ livelihood adaptation to climate variability and ecological changes in the savanna agro ecological zone of Ghana. Heliyon, 5(4), e01492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ansah, I. G. K., Gardebroek, C., & Ihle, R. (2019). Resilience and household food security: A review of concepts, methodological approaches and empirical evidence. Food Security, 11(6), 1187–1203. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00968-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apusigah, A. A. (2009). The gendered politics of farm household production and the shaping of women ‘ s livelihoods in Northern Ghana. Feminist Africa, 12, 51–68. https://feministafrica.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/fa_12_entire_journal.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Arnall, A. (2015). Resilience as transformative capacity: Exploring the quadripartite cycle of structuration in a Mozambican resettlement programme. Geoforum; Journal of Physical, Human, and Regional Geosciences, 66, 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.08.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assan, E., Suvedi, M., Schmitt Olabisi, L., & Allen, A. (2018). Coping with and adapting to climate change: A gender perspective from smallholder farming in Ghana. Environments, 5(8), 86. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments5080086
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avornyo, F. K., Ayantunde, A., Shaibu, M. T., Konlan, S. P., & Karbo, N. (2015). Effect of feed and health packages on the performance of village small ruminants in northern Ghana. International Journal of Livestock Research, 5(7), 91–98. https://doi.org/10.5455/ijlr.20150717102356
   Google Scholar
• Barbier, B., Yacouba, H., Karambiri, H., Zoromé, M., & Somé, B. (2009). Human vulnerability to climate variability in the Sahel: Farmers’ adaptation strategies in northern Burkina Faso. Environmental Management, 43(5), 790–803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9237-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bariw, S. A., Kudadze, S., & Adzawla, W. (2020). Prevalence, effects and management of fall army worm in the Nkoranza South Municipality, Bono East region of Ghana. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 6(6), 1800239. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1800239
   Google Scholar
• Batung, E. S., Mohammed, K., Kansanga, M. M., Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., & Luginaah, I. (2022). Credit access and perceived climate change resilience of smallholder farmers in semi-arid northern Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25, 321–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02056-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Béné, C., Wood, R. G., Newsham, A., & Davies, M. (2012). Resilience: New Utopia or New Tyranny? Reflection about the potentials and limits of the concept of resilience in relation to vulnerability reduction programmes. IDS Working Papers, 2012, 1–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2040-0209.2012.00405.x
   Google Scholar
• Biggs, R., Schlüter, M., Biggs, D., Bohensky, E. L., Burnsilver, S., Cundill, G., Dakos, V., Daw, T. M., Evans, L. S., Kotschy, K., Leitch, A. M., Meek, C., Quinlan, A., Raudsepp-Hearne, C., Robards, M. D., Schoon, M. L., Schultz, L., & West, P. C. (2012). Toward principles for enhancing the resilience of ecosystem services. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37, 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-051211-123836
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birthal, P. S., & Hazrana, J. (2019). Crop diversification and resilience of agriculture to climatic shocks: Evidence from India. Agricultural Systems, 173, 345–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.03.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bren d’Amour, C., Reitsma, F., Baiocchi, G., Barthel, S., Güneralp, B., Erb, K.-H., Haberl, H., Creutzig, F., & Seto, K. C. (2017). Future urban land expansion and implications for global croplands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(34), 8939–8944. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1606036114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cansino, J. M., Román-Collado, R., & Merchán, J. (2019). Do Spanish energy efficiency actions trigger JEVON’S paradox? Energy, 181, 760–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.05.210
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceddia, M. G., & Zepharovich, E. (2017). Jevons paradox and the loss of natural habitat in the Argentinean Chaco: The impact of the indigenous communities’ land titling and the forest Law in the province of Salta. Land Use Policy, 69, 608–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.09.044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaplin-Kramer, R., Chappell, M. J., & Bennett, E. M. (2023). Un-yielding: Evidence for the agriculture transformation we need. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1520, 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, T. (2017). The impact of the shea nut industry on women’s empowerment in Burkina Faso: A multi-dimensionl study focusing on the Central, Central-West and Hauts-Bassins regions (No. 3). Rome.
   Google Scholar
• Cui, Z., Zhang, H., Chen, X., Zhang, C., Ma, W., Huang, C., Zhang, W., Mi, G., Miao, Y., Li, X., Gao, Q., Yang, J., Wang, Z., Ye, Y., Guo, S., Lu, J., Huang, J., Lv, S., Sun, Y., … Dou, Z. (2018). Pursuing sustainable productivity with millions of smallholder farmers. Nature, 555(7696), 363–366. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlin, A. S., & Rusinamhodzi, L. (2019). Yield and labor relations of sustainable intensification options for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. A meta-analysis. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0575-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakora, F., & Keya, O. (1997). Contribution of legume nitrogen fixation to sustainable agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 29(5-6), 809–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00225-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakora, F. D., Aboyinga, R. A., Mahama, Y., & Apaseku, J. (1987). Assessment of N2 fixation in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) and their relative N contribution to a succeeding maize crop in Northern Ghana. Mircen Journal of Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 3(4), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00935697
   Google Scholar
• Darnhofer, I., Fairweather, J., & Moller, H. (2010). Assessing a farm’s sustainability: Insights from resilience thinking. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 8(3), 186–198. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0480
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ditzler, L., Komarek, A. M., Chiang, T. W., Alvarez, S., Chatterjee, S. A., Timler, C., Raneri, J. E., Carmona, N. E., Kennedy, G., & Groot, J. C. J. (2019). A model to examine farm household trade-offs and synergies with an application to smallholders in Vietnam. Agricultural Systems, 173, 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.02.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon, J, Auricht, C, Lott, R, & Mburathi, G. (2020). Farming systems and food security in Africa. In J. Dixon, D. P. Garrity, J.-M. Boffa, T. O. Williams, & T. v (Eds.), Priorities for science and policy under global change (1st ed., Vol. 1). Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Farming-Systems-and-Food-Security-in-Africa-Priorities-for-Science-and/Dixon-Garrity-Boffa-Williams-Amede-Auricht-Lott-Mburathi/p/book/9781032082141?gclid=CjwKCAjwl6OiBhA2EiwAuUwWZblYgiS0U5nKrNLdHUyD8vsiQHSaDlxHNwJyTffk1wc5HUAh6LWPhoCajIQAvD_BwE
   Google Scholar
• Du Plessis, H., Schlemmer, M. L., & Van den Berg, J. (2020). The effect of temperature on the development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 11(4), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11040228
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elias, M. (2015). Gender, knowledge-sharing and management of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) parklands in central-west Burkina Faso. Journal of Rural Studies, 38, 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JRURSTUD.2015.01.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elias, M., & Carney, J. A. (2007). African shea butter: A feminized subsidy from nature. Africa: The Journal of the International African Institute, 77(1), 37–62. https://doi.org/10.1353/afr.2007.0018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAO. (2005). Map: Guinea Savannah [WWW Document]. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20987/icode/.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. (2012). Risks, vulnerabilities and resilience in a context of climate change, Agriculture and Consumer protection Department. Rome, Italy.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. (2015). The State of Food and Agriculture 2015. Social Protection and Agriculture: Breaking the Cycle of Rural Poverty, Sofa.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. (2018). National gender profile of agriculture and rural livelihoods-Ghana. Accra, Ghana.
   Google Scholar
• Fernández García, I., Rodríguez Díaz, J. A., Camacho Poyato, E., Montesinos, P., & Berbel, J. (2014). Effects of modernization and medium term perspectives on water and energy use in irrigation districts. Agricultural Systems, 131, 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.08.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freire-González, J. (2011). Methods to empirically estimate direct and indirect rebound effect of energy-saving technological changes in households. Ecological Modelling, 223(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.09.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friesen, J. (2002). Spatio-temporal rainfall patterns in Northern Ghana. Diploma Thesis. Geographisches Institute der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn.
   Google Scholar
• GARBES. (2014). Ghana Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) Baseline Evaluation Survey.
   Google Scholar
• Garcia, S. N., Osburn, B. I., & Jay-Russell, M. T. (2020). One health for food safety, food security, and sustainable food production. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4, 1–9. Article: 1. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00001
   Google Scholar
• Ghimire, Y. N., Shivakoti, G. P., & Perret, S. R. (2010). Household-level vulnerability to drought in hill agriculture of Nepal: Implications for adaptation planning. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 17(3), 225–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504501003737500
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groot, J. C. J., Cortez-Arriola, J., Rossing, W. A. H., Massiotti, R. D. A., & Tittonell, P. (2016). Capturing agroecosystem vulnerability and resilience. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(8), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8111206
   Google Scholar
• Groot, J. C. J., Oomen, G. J. M., & Rossing, W. A. H. (2012). Multi-objective optimization and design of farming systems. Agricultural Systems, 110, 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2012.03.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hänke, H., & Barkmann, J. (2017). Insurance function of livestock: Farmer’s coping capacity with regional droughts in South-Western Madagascar. World Development, 96, 264–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.03.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, C. A., Rakotobe, Z. L., Rao, N. S., Dave, R., Razafimahatratra, H., Rabarijohn, R. H., Rajaofara, H., & MacKinnon, J. L. (2014). Extreme vulnerability of smallholder farmers to agricultural risks and climate change in Madagascar. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1639), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0089
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, C. A., Saborio-Rodríguez, M., Martinez-Rodríguez, M. R., Viguera, B., Chain-Guadarrama, A., Vignola, R., & Alpizar, F. (2018). Climate change impacts and adaptation among smallholder farmers in Central America. Agriculture & Food Security, 7(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0209-x
   Google Scholar
• Hertel, T. W., Ramankutty, N., & Baldos, U. L. C. (2014). Global market integration increases likelihood that a future African Green Revolution could increase crop land use and CO2 emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(38), 13799–13804. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1403543111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horst, W. J., & Hardter, R. (1994). Rotation of maize with cowpea improves yield and nutrient use of maize compared to maize monocropping in an Alfisol in the Northern Guinea savanna of Ghana. Plant and Soil, 160(2), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00010143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IPCC. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, U.K. and New York, USA.
   Google Scholar
• IPCC. (2019). Climate Change and Land. IPCC Special Report.
   Google Scholar
• Jansen, D., 2020. Pathways towards nutritional resilience for smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana Pathways towards nutritional resilience for smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana 2020, 1–60.
   Google Scholar
• Jarawura, F. X. (2014). Perceptions of drought among rural farmers in the Savelugu district in the northern Savannah of Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography, 6, 102–120. http://www.ajol.info/index.php/gjg/article/download/111137/100904
   Google Scholar
• Jentoft, S., van Son, T. C., & Bjørkan, M. (2007). Marine protected areas: A governance system analysis. Human Ecology, 35(5), 611–622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-007-9125-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jevons, W. S. (1866). The coal question (2nd ed.). Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Konlan, S. P., Ayantunde, A. A., Dei, H. K., & Avornyo, F. K. (2014). Evaluation of existing and potential feed resources for ruminant production in northern Ghana, Technical Report. Tamale, Ghana. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7294-9.
   Google Scholar
• Kotu, B., Abdul Rahman, N., Larbi, A., Akakpo, D., Asante, M., Mellon, S. B., & Hoeschle-Zeledon, I. (2016). Insecticide spray regime effect on cowpea yield and financial returns in northern Ghana. Africa RISING Planning and Review Meeting 2016, Accra. IITA. Ibadan, Nigeria.
   Google Scholar
• Kotu, B. H., Alene, A., Manyong, V., Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., & Larbi, A. (2017). Adoption and impacts of sustainable intensification practices in Ghana. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15(5), 539–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1369619
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotu, B. H., Oyinbo, O., Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., Nurudeen, A. R., Kizito, F., & Boyubie, B. (2022). Smallholder farmers’ preferences for sustainable intensification attributes in maize production: Evidence from Ghana. World Development, 152, 1–13. 105789. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X21004046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuivanen, K. S., Alvarez, S., Michalscheck, M., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Descheemaeker, K., Mellon-Bedi, S., & Groot, J. C. J. (2016a). Characterising the diversity of smallholder farming systems and their constraints and opportunities for innovation: A case study from the Northern Region. Ghana. NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 78(1), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2016.04.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuivanen, K. S., Michalscheck, M., Descheemaeker, K., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Mellon-Bedi, S., Groot, J. C. J., & Alvarez, S. (2016b). A comparison of statistical and participatory clustering of smallholder farming systems - A case study in Northern Ghana. Journal of Rural Studies, 45, 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.03.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambin, E. F., & Meyfroidt, P. (2011). Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(9), 3465–3472. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100480108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larbi, A., Addul Rahman, N., Kotu, B., Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., Akakpo, D., & Mellon, S. B. (2016a). Nitrogen rate and variety effect on profitability of maize production in Northern Ghana. Africa RISING Planning and Review Meeting 2016, Accra. IITA. Ibadan, Nigeria.
   Google Scholar
• Larbi, A., Addul Rahman, N., Kotu, B., Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., Akakpo, D., & Mellon, S. B. (2016b). Integrated soil fertility management affect profitability of Soybean in Northern Ghana. Africa RISING Planning and Review Meeting 2016, Accra. IITA. Ibadan, Nigeria.
   Google Scholar
• Lowder, S. K., Skoet, J., & Raney, T. (2016). The number, size, and distribution of farms, smallholder farms, and family farms worldwide. World Development, 87, 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2015.10.041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magombeyi, M. S., & Taigbenu, A. E. (2008). Crop yield risk analysis and mitigation of smallholder farmers at quaternary catchment level: Case study of B72A in Olifants river basin, South Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 33(8-13), 744–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.050
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mashizha, T. M. (2019). Building adaptive capacity: Reducing the climate vulnerability of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. Business Strategy & Development, 2(3), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsd2.50
   Google Scholar
• Masters, E. T., Yidana, J. A., & Lovett, P. N. (2004). Reinforcing sound management through trade: Shea tree products in Africa. Unasylva. UN FAO, 55, 46–52. ISSN: 0041 - 6436.
   Google Scholar
• Mertz, O., Mbow, C., Reenberg, A., & Diouf, A. (2009). Farmers’ perceptions of climate change and agricultural adaptation strategies in rural Sahel. Environmental Management, 43(5), 804–816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9197-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meuwissen, M. P. M., Feindt, P. H., Spiegel, A., Termeer, C. J. A. M., Mathijs, E., de Mey, Y., Finger, R., Balmann, A., Wauters, E., Urquhart, J., Vigani, M., Zawalińska, K., Herrera, H., Nicholas-Davies, P., Hansson, H., Paas, W., Slijper, T., Coopmans, I., Vroege, W., … Reidsma, P. (2019). A framework to assess the resilience of farming systems. Agricultural Systems, 176, 1–10. 102656. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521X19300046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mewes, A. J. M. (2018). Master Thesis Risk Perception in Agriculture depending on Community Characteristics - a Study of Northern Ghanaian Communities.
   Google Scholar
• Michalscheck, M., Groot, J. C. J., Fischer, G., & Tittonell, P. (2019). Land use decisions: By whom and to whose benefit? A serious game to uncover dynamics in farm land allocation at household level in Northern Ghana. Land use Policy, 91, 104325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104325
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalscheck, M., Groot, J. C. J., Kotu, B., Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., Kuivanen, K., Descheemaeker, K., & Tittonell, P. (2018). Model results versus farmer realities. Operationalizing diversity within and among smallholder farm systems for a nuanced impact assessment of technology packages. Agricultural Systems, 162, 164–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.028
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohammed, I. B. (2015). Focus Group Discussions.
   Google Scholar
• Montanarella, L., Pennock, D.J., McKenzie, N., Badraoui, M., Chude, V., Baptista, I., Mamo, T., Yemefack, M., Aulakh, M.S., Yagi, K., Hong, S.Y., Vijarnsorn, P., Zhang, G.L., Arrouays, D., Black, H., Krasilnikov, P., Sobocká, J., Alegre, J., Henriquez, C.R.…Vargas, R., 2016. World’s soils are under threat. Soil, 2(1), 79–82. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-79-2016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutenje, J. M., Mapiye, C., Mavunganidze, Z., Mwale, M., Muringai, V., Katsinde, C., & Gavumende, I. (2008). Livestock as a buffer against HIV and AIDS income shocks in the rural households of Zimbabwe. Development Southern Africa, 25(1), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/03768350701837754
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthelo, D., Owusu-Sekyere, E., & Ogundeji, A. A. (2019). Smallholder farmers’ adaptation to drought: Identifying effective adaptive strategies and measures. Water (Switzerland), 11(10), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102069
   Google Scholar
• Ng’ang’a, S. K., Bulte, E. H., Giller, K. E., Ndiwa, N. N., Kifugo, S. C., McIntire, J. M., Herrero, M., & Rufino, M. C. (2016). Livestock wealth and social capital as insurance against climate risk: A case study of Samburu County in Kenya. Agricultural Systems, 146, 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2016.04.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngoma, H., Pelletier, J., Mulenga, B. P., & Subakanya, M. (2021). Climate-smart agriculture, cropland expansion and deforestation in Zambia: Linkages, processes and drivers. Land Use Policy, 107, 1–15. 105482. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837721002052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicod, T., Bathfield, B., Bosc, P. M., Promkhambut, A., Duangta, K., & Chambon, B. (2020). Households’ livelihood strategies facing market uncertainties: How did Thai farmers adapt to a rubber price drop? Agricultural Systems, 182, 1–11. 102846. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308521X19303300
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nord, A., Bekunda, M., McCormack, C., & Snapp, S. (2021). Barriers to sustainable intensification: Overlooked disconnects between agricultural extension and farmer practice in maize-legume cropping systems in Tanzania. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 182, 1–20. 102846. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308521X19303300
   Google Scholar
• Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., & Bezner Kerr, R. (2017). Land grabbing, social differentiation, intensified migration and food security in northern Ghana. Journal of Peasant Studies, 44(2), 421–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1228629
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyberg, Y., Wetterlind, J., Jonsson, M., & Öborn, I. (2021). Factors affecting smallholder adoption of adaptation and coping measures to deal with rainfall variability. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 19(2), 175–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2021.1895574
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olugbenga, E. O. (2017). Workable social health insurance systems in Sub-saharan Africa: Insights from four countries. Africa Development, 42(1), 147–175. ISSN: 0850 3907.
   Google Scholar
• Padmanabhan, M. A. (2007). The making and unmaking of gendered crops in northern Ghana. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 28(1), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9493.2006.00276.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman, N. A., Larbi, A., Kotu, B., Kizito, F., & Hoeschle-Zeledon, I. (2020). Evaluating sustainable intensification of groundnut production in northern Ghana using the sustainable intensification assessment framework approach. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(15), 1–17. 5970. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12155970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sears, L., Caparelli, J., Lee, C., Pan, D., Strandberg, G., Vuu, L., & Lawell, C. Y. C. L. (2018). Jevons’ paradox and efficient irrigation technology. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051590
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro-Garza, E., King, D., Rivera-Aguirre, A., Wang, S., & Finley-Lezcano, J. (2020). A participatory framework for feasibility assessments of climate change resilience strategies for smallholders: Lessons from coffee cooperatives in Latin America. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 18(1), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2019.1658841
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Signorelli, S. (2016). Typology characterization of farmers in Ghana. https://africa-rising.wikispaces.com/file/view/Typology+Characterization+Ghana_Final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sorrell, S. (2009). Jevons’ paradox revisited: The evidence for backfire from improved energy efficiency. Energy Policy, 37(4), 1456–1469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.12.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tambo, J. A. (2016). Adaptation and resilience to climate change and variability in north-east Ghana. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 17, 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.04.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tambo, J. A., & Wünscher, T. (2017). Enhancing resilience to climate shocks through farmer innovation: Evidence from northern Ghana. Regional Environmental Change, 17(5), 1505–1514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1113-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teferra, T. F. (2022). The cost of postharvest losses in Ethiopia: Economic and food security implications. Heliyon, 8(3), 1–8. e09077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tessema, I., & Simane, B. (2019). Vulnerability analysis of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change: An agro-ecological system-based approach in the Fincha’a sub-basin of the upper Blue Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Ecological Processes, 8(1), 1–18. https://ecologicalprocesses.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13717-019-0159-7
   Google Scholar
• Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J., & Befort, B. L. (2011). Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20260–4. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1116437108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timler, C., Michalscheck, M., Alvarez, S., Descheemaeke, K., & Groot, J. C. J. (2017). Exploring options for sustainable intensification through legume integration in different farm types in eastern Zambia. In I. Öborn, B. Vanlauwe, M. Phillips, R. Thomas, W. Brooijmans, & K. Atta-Krah (Eds.), Sustainable intensification in smallholder agriculture: An integrated systems research approach (pp. 196–209). Routledge, the Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315618791
   Google Scholar
• Tittonell, P. (2014). Livelihood strategies, resilience and transformability in African agroecosystems. Agricultural Systems, 126, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2013.10.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toroghi, S. H., & Oliver, M. E. (2019). Framework for estimation of the direct rebound effect for residential photovoltaic systems. Applied Energy, 251, 113391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113391
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urruty, N., Tailliez-Lefebvre, D., & Huyghe, C. (2016). Stability, robustness, vulnerability and resilience of agricultural systems. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0347-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vélez-Henao, J. A., García-Mazo, C. M., Freire-González, J., & Vivanco, D. F. (2020). Environmental rebound effect of energy efficiency improvements in Colombian households. Energy Policy, 145, 1784–1795. 111697. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421520304250
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, B. H. (2020). Resilience: What it is and is not. Ecology and Society, 25(2), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11647-250211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Long, A., Xiang, L., Deng, X., Zhang, P., Hai, Y., Wang, J., & Li, Y. (2020). The verification of Jevons’ paradox of agricultural water conservation in Tianshan District of China based on water footprint. Agricultural Water Management, 239, 106163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106163
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xue, L., Liu, X., Lu, S., Cheng, G., Hu, Y., Liu, J., Dou, Z., Cheng, S., & Liu, G. (2021). China’s food loss and waste embodies increasing environmental impacts. Nature Food, 2(7), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00317-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar