Does Increasing Ethnic Diversity Reduce Electoral Turnout? The Case of New Zealand 1957–2020

References

• Aldrich, J. H., Montgomery, J. M., & Wood, W. (2011). Turnout as a habit. Political Behavior, 33(4), 535–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9148-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfaro-Redondo, R. (2014). Lifecycle changes and the activation of habitual voting: The case of Costa Rica. Electoral Studies, 35, 188–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2014.06.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banducci, S. A., & Karp, J. (1999). The impact of proportional representation on turnout: Evidence from New Zealand. Australian Journal of Political Science, 34(3), 363–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361149950281
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh, M. (2013). Multiple sites of Māori political participation. Australian Journal of Political Science, 48(4), 445–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2013.841123
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh, M. (2021). The Māori electorates. In J. Hayward, L. Greaves, & C. Timperley (Eds.), Government and politics in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 230–240). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Barker, F., & McMillan, K. (2017). Factors influencing the electoral participation of Asian immigrants in New Zealand. Political Science, 69(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/00323187.2017.1348236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barry, B. (1978). Sociologists, economist and democracy (2nd ed.). Chicago University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Beaman, J. (2016). Citizenship as cultural: Towards a theory of cultural citizenship. Sociology Compass, 10(10), 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12415
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bird, K., Saalfeld, T., & Wüst, A. M. (Eds.). (2011). The political representation of immigrants and minorities: Voters, parties and parliaments in liberal democracies. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Blais, A., & Achen, C. H. (2019). Civic duty and voter turnout. Political Behavior, 41(2), 473–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9459-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blais, A., & Daoust, J.-F. (2020). The motivation to vote: Explaining electoral participation. UBC Press. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/VUW/detail.action?docID=6032330
   Google Scholar
• Bryant, J. (2003). The ageing of the New Zealand population, 1881–2051 (New Zealand Treasury Working Paper 03/07). https://www.treasury.govt.nz/publications/wp/ageing-new-zealand-population-1881-2051-wp-03-27-html
   Google Scholar
• Cameron, M. P., & Poot, J. (2019). Towards superdiverse Aotearoa: Dimensions of past and future ethnic diversity in New Zealand and its regions. New Zealand Population Review, 45, 18–45.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, A., Gurin, G., & Miller, W. E. (1954). The voter decides. Row, Peterson.
   Google Scholar
• Chapman, R. M. (1963). The response to labour and the question of parallelism of opinion, 1928–1960. In R. M. Chapman & K. Sinclair (Eds.), Studies of a small democracy (pp. 221–254). Paulls Book Arcade.
   Google Scholar
• Chapman, R. M. (1986). Voting in the Māori political subsystem, 1935–1984. In Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System (pp. B83–B108). Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Coleman, K. M., & Davis, C. L. (1976). The structural context of politics and dimensions of regime performance: Their importance for the comparative study of political efficacy. Comparative Political Studies, 9(2), 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041407600900203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. (2014). Using publicly available information to proxy for unidentified race and ethnicity. https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/201409_cfpb_report_proxy-methodology.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Cox, G., Fiva, J. H., & Smith, D. (2016). The contraction effect: How proportional representation affects mobilization and turnout. The Journal of Politics, 78(4), 1249–1263. https://doi.org/10.1086/686804
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, S. C., & Maggiotto, M. A. (1982). Measuring political efficacy. Political Methodology, 8(3), 85–109.
   Google Scholar
• Cravens, M. D. (2013). The role of habit in voting: Making and breaking habitual voters [PhD thesis, University of Minnesota]. Minnesota Libraries digital conservancy. https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/159682
   Google Scholar
• Downs, A. (1957). An economic theory of democracy. Harper and Row.
   Google Scholar
• Environmental Health Intelligence New Zealand. (2022). Age profile. https://www.ehinz.ac.nz/indicators/population-vulnerability/age-profile/
   Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, E., Stevenson, B., & Tapiata, J. (2007). Māori electoral participation: A report produced for the Electoral Commission. https://www.academia.edu/1559198/M%C4%81ori_Electoral_Participation
   Google Scholar
• Foster, J., & Taylor, D. (2019). Voter turnout decline in New Zealand: A critical review of the literature and suggestions for future research. New Zealand Sociology, 34(1), 1–26.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, M. N. (2004). Voter turnout and the dynamics of electoral competition in established democracies since 1945. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, M. N., Lyons, P., & Marsh, M. (2004). The generational basis of turnout decline in established democracies. Acta Politica, 39(2), 115–151. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.ap.5500060
   Google Scholar
• Galicki, C. (2018). Barriers to voting and the cost of voting among low socioeconomic, young and migrant voters in New Zealand. Political Science, 70(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/00323187.2018.1473014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerber, A., Green, D., & Larimer, C. (2008). Social pressure and voter turnout: Evidence from a large-scale field experiment. American Political Science Review, 102(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000305540808009X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geys, B. (2006). Explaining voter turnout: A review of aggregate-level research. Electoral Studies, 25(4), 637–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2005.09.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godfery, M. (2015). The Māori party. In J. Hayward (Ed.), New Zealand government and politics (6th ed., pp. 240–250). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Grasso, M. T. (2014). Age, period and cohort analysis in a comparative context: Political generations and political participation repertoires in Western Europe. Electoral Studies, 33, 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2013.06.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grasso, M. T. (2016). Generations, political participation and social change in Western Europe. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Huang, J. (2023). The power of habit and electoral participation of ethnic Chinese in New Zealand [PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington]. https://openaccess.wgtn.ac.nz/articles/thesis/The_power_of_habit_and_electoral_participation_of_ethnic_Chinese_in_New_Zealand/22261522
   Google Scholar
• Ip, M. (2007). Chinese political participation in New Zealand: The role of Taiwanese immigrants. Chinese in New Zealand. https://bit.ly/3tAjik0
   Google Scholar
• Isitini, L., & Crothers, C. (2013). Turnout and voting choices at general elections of Pacific peoples in New Zealand. Political Science, 65(2), 157–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032318713507206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karp, J., & Banducci, S. (2004). Political parties and party mobilisation. In J. Vowles, P. Aimer, J. Karp, S. Banducci, & R. Miller (Eds.), Voters’ veto: The 2002 election in New Zealand and the consolidation of minority government (pp. 104–116). Auckland University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kawharu, H. (Ed.). (1989). Waitangi: Māori and Pākehā perspectives of the treaty of Waitangi. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kostelka, F., & Blais, A. (2021). The generational and institutional sources of the global decline in voter turnout. World Politics, 73(4), 629–667. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887121000149
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladner, K. L., & McCrossnan, M. (2007). The electoral participation of Aboriginal people. Elections Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2008/elections/SE3-69-2007E.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Lyons, W., & Alexander, R. (2000). A tale of two electorates: Generational replacement and the decline of voting in presidential elections. The Journal of Politics, 62(4), 1014–1034. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-3816.00044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marolle, R. J. (1966). Contribution of immigration to population growth. In McLintock, A. H. (Ed.), An encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Republished in Te Ara—the encyclopedia of New Zealand. http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/immigration/page-9
   Google Scholar
• Martin, J. E. (2005). Political participation and electoral change in nineteenth-century New Zealand. Political Science, 57(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/003231870505700104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mateos, P. (2007). A review of name-based ethnicity classification methods and their potential in population studies. Population Space and Place, 13(4), 243–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.457
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVey, A., & Vowles, J. (2005). Virtuous circle or Cul De Sac? Social capital and political participation in New Zealand. Political Science, 57(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/003231870505700102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, W. E., Miller, A. H., & Schneider, E. J. (1980). American national election studies data sourcebook: 1952–1978. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, A. (1969). Politics and people in New Zealand. Whitcombe and Tombes.
   Google Scholar
• Moon, P. (2013). A proud thing to have recorded. Journal of New Zealand Studies, 16. https://ojs.victoria.ac.nz/jnzs/article/view/2025
   Google Scholar
• Nagel, J. (1988). Voter turnout in New Zealand general elections 1928–1988. Political Science, 40(2), 16–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/003231878804000202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neal, D. T., Wood, W., Labrecque, J. S., & Lally, P. (2012). How do habits guide behavior? Perceived and actual triggers of habits in daily life. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(2), 492–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.10.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neal, D. T., Wood, W., Wu, M., & Kurlander, D. (2011). The pull of the past: When do habits persist despite conflict with motives? Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1428–1437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211419863
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrom, E. (1998). A behavioral approach to the rational choice theory of collective action: Presidential address, American Political Science Association, 1997. The American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/2585925. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2585925?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouellette, J. A., & Wood, W. (1998). Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.54
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, S. J. (2006). Political participation of Asian New Zealanders: A case study of ethnic Chinese and Korean New Zealanders [PhD thesis, University of Auckland]. https://bit.ly/3bb1BRY
   Google Scholar
• Pew Research Centre. (2020). Naturalized citizens make up record one-in-ten U.S. eligible voters in 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2020/02/26/naturalized-citizens-make-up-record-one-in-ten-u-s-eligible-voters-in-2020/
   Google Scholar
• Pikkov, D. L. (2011). The practice of voting: Immigrant turnout, the persistence of origin effects, and the nature, formation and transmission of political habit [PhD thesis, University of Toronto Library]. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/31900/1/Pikkov_Deanna_L_201108_PhD_thesis.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Plutzer, E. (2002). Becoming a habitual voter: Inertia, resources and growth in young adulthood. American Political Science Review, 96(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055402004227
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pool, I. (1991). Te Iwi Māori. Auckland University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Prates, M. (2022). A snapshot of New Zealand in the 1950s. Economic insights. BERL. https://www.berl.co.nz/economic-insights/snapshot-new-zealand-1950s
   Google Scholar
• Riambau, G. (2018). Māori in New Zealand: Voting with their feet? Political Science, 72(2), 93–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/00323187.2020.1856688
   Google Scholar
• Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. (1968). A theory of the calculus of voting. American Political Science Review, 62(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.2307/1953324
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Royal Commission on the Electoral System. (1986). Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System. Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Schelling, T. C. (1978). Micromotives and macrobehaviour. WW Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Schepsle, K. A., & Boncheck, M. S. (1997). Analysing politics: Rationality, balance, and institutions. WW Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Selb, P. (2009). A deeper look at the proportionality-turnout nexus. Comparative Political Studies, 42(4), 527–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414008327427
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonsen, K. (2021). Politics feeds back: The minority/majority turnout gap and citizenship in anti-immigrant times. Perspectives on Politics, 19(2), 406–421. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720002431
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smets, K. (2012). A widening generational divide? The age gap in voter turnout through time and space. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion, and Parties, 22(4), 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2012.728221
   Google Scholar
• Smets, K., & Van Ham, C. (2013). The embarrassment of riches? A meta-analysis of individual-level research on voter turnout. Electoral Studies, 32(2), 344–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2012.12.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, K. (2008). Brain makes decisions before you even know it. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2008.751
   Google Scholar
• Sorrenson, M. P. K. (1986). A history of Māori representation in parliament. In Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System: Towards a better democracy, B1–B107. Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Spies, D., Mayer, S. J., & Goerres, A. (2020). What are we missing? Explaining immigrant-origin voter turnout with standard and immigrant-specific theories. Electoral Studies, 65, Article 102103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spoonley, P. (2020). The new New Zealand: Facing demographic disruption. Massey University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stats NZ. (2022a). National ethnic population projections, by age and sex, 2018(base)-2043 update. https://nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz/wbos/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLECODE8613&_ga=2.112229380.1011763998.1664479829-996081258.1650525501#
   Google Scholar
• Stats NZ. (2022b). Māori descent indicator by age group and sex, for the census usually resident population count, 2006, 2013 and 2018 censuses (RC, TA, SA2, DHB, urban rural indicator). https://nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz/wbos/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLECODE8302#
   Google Scholar
• Stats NZ. (2023). 2018 census place summaries. https://www.stats.govt.nz/tools/2018-census-place-summaries/new-zealand
   Google Scholar
• Stillwell, D. (2022). Attributing ethnicity using someone’s name. Government Analysis Function. https://analysisfunction.civilservice.gov.uk/blog/attributing-ethnicity-using-someones-name/
   Google Scholar
• UMR Research. (2006). Maori electoral engagement: A review of existing data. https://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/pacific/NZ/new-zealand-maori-electoral-engagement-the
   Google Scholar
• Verba, S., Schlozman, K. L., & Brady, H. (1995). Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J. (1994). Dealignment and demobilisation? Nonvoting in New Zealand 1938–1990. Australian Journal of Political Science, 29(1), 96–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00323269408402282
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vowles, J. (2002a). The puzzle of turnout. In J. Vowles, P. Aimer, J. Karp, S. Banducci, R. Miller, & A. Sullivan (Eds.), Proportional representation on trial: The 1999 election in New Zealand and the fate of MMP (pp. 99–113). Auckland University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J. (2002b). Offsetting the PR effect? Party mobilisation and turnout decline in New Zealand, 1996–99. Party Politics, 8(5), 587–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068802008005005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vowles, J. (2010). Electoral system change, generations, competitiveness and turnout in New Zealand, 1963–2005. British Journal of Political Science, 40(4), 875–895. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123409990342
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vowles, J. (2017). The big picture: Turnout at the macro-level. In J. Fisher, M. Cantijoch, E. Fieldhouse, M. Franklin, R. Gibson, & C. Wlezien (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of elections, voting behavior and public opinion (pp. 57–68). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J., & Aimer, E. P. (1993). Voters’ vengeance: The 1990 election in New Zealand and the fate of the fourth labour government. Auckland University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J., Aimer, P., Catt, H., Lamare, J., & Miller, R. (1995). Towards consensus? The 1993 general election and referendum in New Zealand and the transition to proportional representation. Auckland University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J., & Gibbons, M. (2022). Representation, identity and indigeneity: Changes in Māori roll choice in Aotearoa-New Zealand. Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, 18(1), 64–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/1177083X.2022.2058967
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J., & Gibbons, M. (2023). A bigger data turnout dataset, 2014–2020. Victoria University of Wellington.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles, J., Katz, G., & Stevens, D. (2017). Electoral competitiveness and turnout in British elections, 1964–2010. Political Science Research and Methods, 5(4), 775–794. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2015.67
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wass, H., Blais, A., Morin-Chassé, A., & Weide, M. (2015). Engaging immigrants? Examining the correlates of electoral participation among voters with migration backgrounds. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 25(4), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2015.1023203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, J, (2010). The Origins of the Maōri Seats. In M. Bargh. (Ed.) Māori and Parliament: Diverse Stratrgies and Compromises (pp. 37–73). Huia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological Review, 114(4), 843–863. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.843
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar